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http://www.archive.org/details/elementaryvocatiOOmillrich 


Vol.  12  OCTOBER.   1916  No.   8 

Jlarplanb  Agricultural  College 
pulletin 


ELEMENTARY  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE 

FOR 

MARYLAND  SCHOOLS 


3J4^ 


Issued  monthly  excepting  the  months  of  November,  December,  January 
and  February.  Entered  at  College  Park,  Md.,  as  Second-Class  Matter 
under  Act  of  August  24,  1912. 


MARYLAND  AGKICULTTJKAL  COLLEGE 

DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


ELEMENTARY  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE 

FOR 

MARYLAND  SCHOOLS 


By 

E.  A.  MILLER 

Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education 
States  Relations  Service,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 


LESSONS  OUTLINED  BY  MONTHS;  \ 


This  publication  was  prepared  by  the  States  Relations  Service  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture,  in  cooperation  with  the  Maryland  Agricultural 
College  and  the  Maryland  State  Department  of  Public  Education. 

Inquiries  relative  to  this  publication  should  be  addressed  to  the  Mary- 
land Agricultural  College,  Department  of  Agricultural  Education,  College 
Park,  Md. 


.  S-H^ 


G"^^  -Mv 


^^    ^^^t^^:!^ 


Maryland    Agricultural    College 

AND 

Experiment  Station 

By  cooperative  agreement  this  bulletin  was  prepared  in  the 
States  Relations  Service,  Dr.  A.  C.  True,  Director,  from 
material  furnished  by  the  Maiyland  Agricultural  College  and 
Experiment  Station,  Dr.  H.  J.  Patterson,  President  and  Director, 
and  the  Maryland  State  Department  of  Public  Education,  Dr. 
M.  Bates  Stephens,  Superintendent. 

The  lessons  were  outlined  and  the  material  organized  under 
the  direction  of  C.  H.  Lane,  Chief  Specialist  in  Agriculture 
Education,  States  Relations  Service. 

The  technical  contents  of  the  lessons  were  furnished  by  the 
following  men: 


AGRIC.  B0T. 


W.  T.  L.  Taliaferro,  Agronomy. 

S.  S.  Buckley,  Animal  Pathology. 

J.  B.  S.  Norton,  Botany  and  Plant  Pathology. 

i€^xt^^^&Jt>^>^^^^^^  Beckenstrater,  Pomology. 

'  '  '  '  J.  E.  Metzger,  Agricultural  Education. 
R.  H.  Ruffner,  Animal  Husbandry. 
E.  N.  Cory,  Entomology. 

B.  W.  Anspon,  Landscape  Gardening. 

C.  0.  Bruce,  Agronomy  and  Farm  Mechanics. 
Nicholas  Schmitz,  Experimental  Agronomy. 
G.  E.  Wolcott,  Dairy  Extension. 
Roy  H.  Waite,  Poultry. 
W.  R.  Ballard,  Pomology  and  Small  Fruits. 
Thomas  H.  White,  Vegetable  Gardening. 


ELEMENTARY  VOCATIONAL  AGRICULTURE  FOR 
MARYLAND  SCHOOLS. 

LESSONS  OUTLINED  BY  MONTHS. 

By  E.  A.  MILLER, 
Specialist  in  Agricultural  Education. 

SEPTEMBER. 
Introduction. 

This  is  the  first  of  a  series  of  pubUcations,  one  for  each  school 
month,  setting  forth  lessons  in  elementary  vocational  agriculture 
for  the  public  schools  of  Maryland.  These  lessons  are  outlined 
after  a  monthly  sequence  plan  and  are  intended  to  be  adapted 
to  the  seasonal,  agricultural,  and  school  conditions  of  Maryland. 
It  is  hoped  that  by  presenting  lessons  in  the  subject  of  agriculture 
at  the  time  the  principles  in  these  lessons  are  practiced  or  should 
be  practiced  on  the  farms  of  the  community  two  things  may  be 
accomplished;  namely,  the  classroom  work  may  be  greatly  vital- 
ized by  having  timely  material  ali  hand  for  practical  work  and  the 
things  that  are  best  to  do  on  the  community  farms  are  taught 
at  the  time  they  should  be  done. 

The  lessons  are  developed  quite  fully,  but  in  addition  to  this 
references  are  made  to  the  textbooks  most  conamonly  used  in 
the  State  as  class  assignments  and  to  the  available  publications 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mary- 
land Agricultural  College  as  teachers'  reading.  By  carefully 
studying  the  reference  literature  the  teachers  are  able  to  supple- 
ment the  lessons  outlined  to  the  advantage  of  the  pupils. 

After  making  a  careful  study  of  school  conditions  in  the  State 
it  is  recognized  that  only  a  limited  number  of  lessons  in  agricul- 
ture can  be  taught  by  the  greatly  burdened  teachers,  hence  these 
outlines  contain  ordinarily  two,  and  never  more  than  three  lessons 
a  week.  It  is  considered  advisable  to  combine  the  sixth  and 
seventh  grades  in  agriculture  and  some  other  subject  as  physi- 

1 

445042 


ology,  and  alternate  the  lessons  in  these  subjects.  That  is,  when 
two  lessons  in  agriculture  are  provided  for  a  week,  assign  three 
lessons  in  physiology,  and  when  three  lessons  in  agriculture  are 
provided,  assign  two  lessons  in  physiology.  In  this  way  the 
work  may  be  carried  on  and  still  not  overburden  the  teacher's 
schedule. 

The  practical  exercises  suggested  take  the  direction  very  largely 
of  club  activities  or  home  projects.  It  is  urged  that  the  teachers 
emphasize  this  phase  of  the  work  and  in  making  up  class  records 
give  it  equal  weight  with  the  recitation  grade.  Teaching  agri- 
culture and  correlating  it  with  other  subjects  cannot  be  made 
effective  unless  the  pupil  demonstrates  the  principles  taught  in 
some  kind  of  farm  project  and  utilizes  the  project  experiences 
in  vitalizing  the  other  subjects  in  the  school  course. 

The  correlation  exercises  set  forth  in  connection  with  each 
lesson  are  largely  suggestive.  These  are  intended  to  indicate 
how  the  teacher  may  take  advantage  of  the  experiences  and 
problems  the  pupils  meet  with  in  their  club  or  project  work  to 
give  vitality  to  the  subjects  of  English,  arithmetic,  geography, 
history,  drawing  and  the  like. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:    Soil. 

Topic :    Winter  Cover  Crops. 

Purpose. — During  the  summer  and  early  fall  much  unused 
plant  food  is  made  available  in  the  soil  by  the  action  of  bacteria 
or  small  plant  life  organisms.  If  such  soil  is  left  unprotected 
during  the  fall  and  winter  months  the  weathering  agencies  leach 
out  and  wash  away  this  available  food.  There  are  certain  hardy 
plants  that  may  be  grown  on  the  land  during  the  fall,  winter  and 
early  spring.  These  utilize  the  available  plant  food,  protect  the 
land  from  washing  by  forming  a  mass  of  roots  in  the  soil  and  a 
coat  on  its  surface,  provide  grazing  for  farm  animals  during  the 
fall  and  early  spring  and  return  plant  food  to  the  soil  when  plowed 
under  in  the  spring. 

Kinds  of  Cover  Crops. — There  are  two  general  classes  of  cover 
crops  adapted  to  Maryland  conditions;  namely,  small  grains  and 
grasses  such  as  rye,  barley,  oats,  wheat  and  timothy,  and  legumes, 


such  as  crimson  clover  and  vetch.  In  all  sections  of  the  State 
where  wheat  and  grasses  are  grown  they  form  a  winter  cover 
for  the  land.  These  crops  usually  follow  corn  or  sod.  Rye, 
barley,  oats,  vetch  and  crimson  clover  may  be  used  as  a  winter 
cover  for  land  that  has  produced  a  crop  of  corn,  tomatoes,  potatoes 
or  the  like.  Rye,  barley  and  vetch  are  preferable  in  western  and 
northern  Maryland,  and  crimson  clover  and  oats  in  the  southern 
portions  of  the  State. 

Dates  of  Seeding  for  wheat  and  timothy  range  from  the  middle 
of  September  in  the  mountain  section  to  the  first  of  November 
in  the  southern  parts  of  the  State.  The  same  is  true  of  rye,  bar- 
ley and  oats.  Crimson  clover  and  vetch  should  be  sown  at  least 
a  month  earlier  where  practicable  to  do  so. 

Rates  of  Seeding. — ^Wheat  and  timothy:  wheat  1  to  1^  bushels, 
timothy  10  pounds;  rye  1  to  IJ  bushels;  crimson  clover  12  to  20 
pounds,  depending  on  the  date  of  planting.  The  later  the  plant- 
ing, the  more  seed  should  be  used.  Vetch  25  to  30  pounds  with 
li  bushels  oats,  J  to  f  bushel  rye,  or  f  to  1  bushel  wheat. 

Methods  of  Seeding. — ^Wheat  and  timothy,  rye,  vetch  and 
grain,  barley,  oats,  and  clover  should  be  seeded  with  a  grain 
drill — one-horse  if  in  standing  crop,  two-horse  if  on  open  land. 
When  crimson  clover  is  hand  seeded  the  land  should  be  previously 
prepared  and  the  seed  should  be  lightly  covered. 

Inoculation. — If  crimson  clover  and  vetch  are  sown  in  fields 
that  have  not  produced  these  crops  before,  inoculation  is  neces- 
sary to  insure  the  success  of  the  crops.  Take  soil  a  spade  deep  from 
fields  that  have  produced  Hiese  crops  and  broadcast  it  over  the 
fields  to  be  seeded  at  the  rate  of  about  two  bushels  of  soil  per 
acre  and  harrow  in  immediately  to  prevent  sunlight  killing  the 
bacteria. 

Textbook  References. — Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  192, 
213,  215,  249,  254;  Davis,  p.  148;  Nolan,  p.  44;  Buffum  and 
Deaver,  pp.  83,  95,  97,  114,  118. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  326  and  427. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Take  pupils  of  the  class  to  nearby 
field  where  a  leguminous  crop  is  growing.  Carefully  remove 
plants  from  the  soil.  Note:  (a)  the  mass  of  roots,  (b)  the 
nodules  or  tubercles.  Examine  in  the  same  way  one  of  the 
plants  that  does  not  belong  to  the  leguminous  group.  Note  the 
difference  and  emphasize  the  fact  that  nodules  are  the  homes  of 

3 


the  bacteria  that  collect  nitrogen,  the  most  expensive  element 
of  plant  food. 

(2)  Require  each  pupil  of  the  class  to  bring  to  school  at  least 
one  each  of  leguminous  and  non-leguminous  plants.  Examine 
and  compare  the  root  systems  and  the  nodules  produced. 

Correlations. — Language:  have  each  pupil  of  the  class  write 
a  description  of  a  leguminous  plant  including  such  points  as, 
depth  to  which  roots  grow,  appearance  of  nodules,  height  of 
plant,  kinds  of  blooms,  seed  cases  and  seeds,  if  any.  (See  De- 
partment Bulletin  No.  132.) 

Drawing:  Sketch  roots  of  leguminous  plants  showing  the 
tubercles. 

Geography:  Trace  the  water  that  falls  on  the  farms  of  the 
community  into  the  branches,  creeks,  and  rivers  on  to  the  sea. 
If  cover  crops  are  not  sown  the  farms  along  the  streams  are 
enriched  at  the  expense  of  those  of  the  community. 

Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  on  the  cost  of  the  seed  used  at 
the  homes  of  the  pupils  in  sowing  cover  crops.  Base  the  cal- 
culations on  the  rates  of  seeding  suggested  in  this  lesson  and  on 
local  prices  of  seed. 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:     Green  Feed. 

Topics:     (1)  Silage,  (2)  Forage  Crops. 

Crops  Used. — Corn  is  the  principal  crop  employed  in  making 
silage  but  it  may  be  supplemented  by  such  fallow  crops  as  peas 
and  soybeans. 

Stage  of  Cutting  Crop. — Corn  for  silage  should  be  cut  somewhat 
earlier  than  for  grain.  The  grains  should  be  dented  and  slightly 
glazed,  but  soft  enough  to  be  pressed  in  with  the  thumb.  The 
time  for  cutting  is  indicated  by  the  shucks  beginning  to  turn 
brown.  Peas  and  soybeans  may  be  cut  any  time  after  they  begin 
putting  on  pods. 

Chopping  the  Materials. — ^All  materials  should  be  cut  into 
lengths  from  J  inch  to  §  inch  long.  Finely  chopped  silage  admits 
of  thorough  packing.  This  excludes  the  air  and  insures  keeping 
qualities.  The  most  economical  type  of  silage  cutter  is  one  that 
is  connected  with  a  blowing  device.  This  forces  the  silage  into 
the  silo  as  it  is  cut. 


Packing  the  Silage. — One  or  two  men  should  be  stationed 
inside  of  the  silo  to  pack  the  silage  thoroughly  as  it  is  forced  in. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  packing  is  done 
thoroughly  around  the  walls.  If  cutting  is  deferred  until  the 
material  becomes  diy,  three  or  four  buckets  of  water  to  each 
load  should  be  sprinkled  on  silage  as  it  is  being  packed.  The  air 
must  be  very  largely  excluded  if  the  silage  is  to  be  preserved 
uniformly. 

Fitting  Doors  and  Covering  Silage. — The  doors  should  be 
covered  with  a  sheet  of  building  paper  and  forced  firmly  into 
position.  When  the  silo  is  quite  full  a  covering  to  exclude  the  air 
should  be  provided  until  it  is  time  to  begin  feeding  the  silage.' 
Fine  trash  or  chaff  well  moistened  and  sowed  down  with  some 
oats  forms  a  mat  that  excludes  the  air. 

Feeding  Silage. — ^After  the  sHq  is  opened  not  less  than  two  inches 
of  silage  should  be  fed  each  day.  Five  square  feet  of  surface  should 
be  fed  to  a  cow  each  day.  If  silage  around  the  walls  of  the  silo 
becom.es  frozen,  it  should  be  piled  up  in  the  middle  to  thaw. 

Forage  Crops. — If  the  instructions  given  in  the  lesson  on  cover 
crops  are  followed  fall  and  spring  grazing  is  provided  for.  In 
western  and  northern  Maryland  the  wheat  stubble  may  be  util- 
ized for  light  fall  grazing.  Both  rye  and  crimson  clover  provide 
grazing  for  the  early  spring  months. 

Hay  is  provided  in  those  parts  of  the  State  where  timothy  and 
clover  are  grown.  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  hay  crops 
and  August  and  September  are  the  months  for  seeding  in  all  of 
Maryland  except  the  mountain  section.  Midsummer  seems  to 
be  the  best  time  for  sowing  alfalfa  in  the  mountain  section.  One 
of  the  best  crops  to  precede  alfalfa  is  potatoes.  A  thoroughly 
prepared  compact  seed  bed  is  necessary  to  successful  seed  germi- 
nation and  early  growth.  A  previous  appHcation  of  lime  at  the 
rate  of  from  one  to  two  tons  per  acre  is  necessary.  If  the  soil 
has  not  grown  alfalfa  very  recently  it  should  be  inoculated. 
Broadcast  over  the  field  from  200  to  500  pounds  of  soil  per  acre 
from  an  alfalfa  or  a  sweet  clover  field.  Liberal  quantities  of  acid 
rock  phosphate  and  muriate  of  potash  should  be  applied  at  the 
time  of  seeding. 

Textbook  References. — ^Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  79,  87;  Nolan, 
pp.  321,  326;  Davis,  97,  109;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  238, 
244. 


Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  292,  339,  509, 
515,  550,  578  and  589.  The  teacher  should  supplement  the 
foregoing  lesson  with  timely  notes  drawn  from  reading. 

Practical  Work. — (1)  The  teacher  should  take  the  pupils  to 
a  nearby  farm  where  silage  is  being  made.  Pupils  should  take 
notes  on  the  several  steps  in  making  and  storing  silage,  using 
the  following  questions  as  a  guide :  (a)  In  what  state  is  the  corn? 
(b)  What  is  the  average  length  of  the  particles?  (c)  How  is 
the  silage  forced  into  the  silo?  (d)  How  is  it  packed?  (e)  Other 
points  of  interest? 

(2)  Are  there  silos  at  the  homes  of  any  members  of  the  class? 
If  so,  have  the  pupils  from  those  homes  report  in  writing  replies 
to  the  foregoing  questions. 

Correlations. — Language :  Have  pupils  provide  themselves  with 
well-bound  note  books.     Transcribe  the  silage  notes  in  this  book. 

Drawing :  Make  sketches  of  the  different  plants  being  used  in 
the  community  for  making  silage,  such  as  corn,  peas,  and  soybeans. 

Arithmetic:  One  cow  consumes  the  silage  from  5  square  feet 
of  surface  to  a  depth  of  2  inches  each  day.  What  should  be  the 
diameter  of  a  silo  to  feed  a  herd  of  10  cows?     15  cows?     20  cows? 

If  the  silage  is  fed  an  average  depth  of  2  inches  per  day  what 
should  be  the  height  of  a  silo  to  feed  a  herd  120  days?  150  days? 
180  days? 

If  silage  weighs  an  average  of  35  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  how 
many  tons  in  a  silo  10  feet  in  diameter  and  20  feet  high?  14  feet 
in  diameter  and  30  feet  high? 

LESSON  THREE. 

Subject :    Crops. 

Topic :    Selecting  Seed  Corn. 

Select  in  the  Field. — Corn  should  be  selected  in  the  field  (a) 
to  be  able  to  determine  the  character  of  the  stalk,  its  location 
with  reference  to  other  stalks,  and  the  number  and  character  of 
ears  it  bears  and  (b)  to  select  and  mark  ears  so  that  they  may 
not  become  mixed  with  the  general  crop  at  harvesting  time. 

The  Stalk. — The  stalk  (fig.  1)  from  which  seed  corn  is  to  be 
selected  should  be  one  that  approaches  nearest  the  ideal  under 
average  field  conditions.     Do  not  be  misled  by  an  attractive, 

6 


symmetrical,  highly  productive  stalk  that  happens  to  have  good 
distance  or  an  unusually  fertile  spot.  Select  the  plant  that  has 
outstripped  its  neighbors  under  average  conditions  of  distance 
and  soil  fertility.  The  stalk  should  be  thrifty  and  of  average 
height,  strong  and  tapering,  have  strong  brace  roots  and  an 
abundance  of  leaves.  It  should  bear  at  least  one  good  ear  lo- 
cated at  a  medium  height — ^not  too  high  nor  too  low,  possessing 


Fig.  1. 


Undesirable 
FOR  Seed. 


Ear  Shank  Too  Short. 
Fair  Stalk. 


Desirable  for  Seed. 


moderately  long  shanks  to  enable  the  ear  to  point  downward 
as  it  matures,  close  fitting  shuck  and  well  covered  tips. 

The  Ear. — The  ear  (fig.  2)  should  be  9  to  11  inches  long  and  its 
average  circumference  should  be  three-fourths  the  length.  The 
cob  should  be  medium  sized,  the  rows  of  kernels  should  be  straight 
and  running  well  out  to  the  tip  and  butt  of  the  ear.  The  kernels 
should  be  long,  approximately  wedge-shaped,  firmly  set  in  place, 
and  true  to  type  as  to  denting  and  color. 

7 


storing  Seed. — ^When  corn  is  being  husked  and  hauled  in  from 
tlje  fields  care  should  be  taken  to  collect  in  separate  piles  the 
marked  ears,  that  is,  if  the  corn  is  shocked.  If  it  is  left  standing 
to  mature^  the  marked  ears  should  be  collected  in  sacks  as  the 
corn  is  being  harvested.  The  selected  corn  should  then  be 
racked  and  stored  where  it  will  not  be  exposed  to  extremes  in 
temperature,  excessive  moisture,  and  attacks  of  insects,  rodents 
and  the  Hke.     If  farm  buildings  are  riot  equipped  with  a  room 


Fig.  2.    Ideal  Ear,  Showing  Tip,  Butt  and   Proportion  of  Cob  to 

Grain. 


especially  prepared  for  storing  seed,  the  ears  should  be  so  racked 
that  they  may  be  suspended  from  points  inaccessible  to  small 
animals.  If  at  any  time  weevils  or  grain  moths  appear  take  the 
corn  down,  place  it  in  a  barrel  and  fumigate  it  with  carbon  bi- 
sulphide. The  carbon  bi-sulphide  should  be  in  a  small  dish 
and  this  placed  on  top  of  the  corn  in  the  barrel.  Cover  the 
barrel  and  let  it  stand  for  forty-eight  hours.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  uncover  the  barrel  and  thoroughly  air  the  corn.  Take  care 
that  there  is  no  fire  near  when  the  barrel  is  opened. 

8 


Textbook  Assignment. — Nolan,  Lesson  14;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  Section  19;  Davis,  pp.  131-138;  Buffum  and  Deaver, 
Lesson  23. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  313,  415  and  537. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Teacher  and  pupils  take  trip  to  some 
club  member's  acre  or  nearby  field.  Select  stalks  and  mark 
ears.  (2)  Have  each  member  of  the  class  bring  to  school  a  well- 
selected  ear  for  study.  Answer  the  following  questions:  What 
is  the  length  of  each  ear?  Circumference?  Are  the  rows  of 
kernels  straight  and  do  they  extend  out  to  the  tip  and  butt? 
What  is  the  shape  of  the  kernels?  Are  they  set  firmly?  Is  the 
cob  large,  small  or  medium  in  size?  All  club  members  should 
select  their  seed  corn  this  month. 

Correlations. — Language:  Require  each  member  of  the  class 
to  write  up  an  account  of  the^  field  trip.  Also  copy  in  the  note 
book  facts  learned  about  the  ears  of  corn  studied  at  school. 

Drawing:  Make  drawings  of  ideal  and  improper  ears,  ideal  and 
ill-shaped  grains. 

Geography:  Locate  on  the  map  the  principal  corn  producing 
States  and  compare  them  with  Maryland  as  to  latitude,  longitude 
and  other  agricultural   industries. 

History:  Organize  a  boys'  corn  club  and  write  to  the  Maryland 
Experiment  Station  and  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  literature  on  corn  club  work. 

Arithmetic :  By  selecting  seed  for  three  years  in  succession  a 
corn  club  boy  increased  his  yield  10  bushels  per  acre  the  third 
year.  The  time  spent  in  selecting  seed  during  three  years  was 
fifteen  hours.  What  was  the  value  of  his  time  per  hour  if  corn 
sells  at  70  cents  per  bushel? 

Have  each  club  member  in  the  class  measure  off  a  plat  20  feet 
by  20  feet  in  his  acre  of  corn,  count  the  stalks  and  ears  and  with 
these  facts  as  a  basis  calculate  the  yield  per  acre. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Hogs. 

Topics :    Plan  for  Seasonal  Pasture. 

Pork  can  be  produced  much  cheaper  if  pastures  or  forage  crops 
are  used  along  with  corn  and  other  feedstuffs.  Blue  grass  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  pasture  grasses  for  Maryland  conditions. 

9 


However,  blue  grass  is  not  found  on  every  farm,  and  even  when 
it  is  there  are  periods  during  the  growing  season  when  it  should 
be  supplemented  with  temporary  grazing  or  forage  crops. 

(To  teacher:  Have  each  pupil  make  a  copy  of  the  accompany- 
ing chart  and  study  it  carefully.) 


Succession  of  ( 

CJrops  for  Hogs 

tEEDINQ  DATES 

LOT  I 

LOT  II 

LOT  III 

First  Year. 

April    1-May    1. 
May     1-July    1. 

July     1-Aug.  15, 

Aug.  15-Dec.  15. 
Sept.  15-Dec.  15. 


r  Crimson  clover 
\     and  rye. 


Corn. 


Winter  barley. 
Winter  oats. 
Vetch  and  red 

clover. 
Alsyke,  Alfalfa. 


{Rape  or  cowpeas 
sown  separately 
or  together. 


Red  clover. 


Second  Year. 


April    1-May    1. 

May     1-July    1. 

July  1-Aug.  15. 
Aug.  15-Dec.  15. 
Sept.  15-Dec.  15. 


f  Crimson  clover 
\     and  rye. 


Rape  or  cowpeas. 

Corn. 

Third  Year. 


{Winter  oats. 
Winter  barley 
and  red  clover. 

Red  clover. 


April    1-May    1. 

May     1-July    1. 

July  1-Aug.  15. 
Aug.  15-Dec.  15. 
Sept.  15-Dec.  15. 


Winter  oats.        | 

Winter  barley.    | 

Vetch  and  red  | 

clover.  I 

Red  clover.  ' 


I  fCrimson  clover 

■j  \     and  rye. 


Rape  or  cowpeas. 


Corn. 


10 


The  foregoing  chart  provides  for  a  three-year  rotation  in  tem- 
porary pastures.  By  utilizing  this  plan  grazing  crops  are  made 
available  for  every  month  m  the  year  except  January,  February 
and  March.  The  area  of  each  lot  in  the  rotation  depends  upon 
the  number  of  pigs  to  be  kept.  One  acre  of  good  soil  should 
support  ten  to  fifteen  hogs. 

All  the  crops  provided  for  should  be  planted  in  the  latter  part 
of  August  and  September,  except  corn,  peas  and  rape.  These, 
of  course,  should  be  planted  after  the  grazing  period  in  the  spring. 
The  first  column  of  the  chart  shows  the  dates  on  which  the  crops 
immediately  opposite  are  ready  for  pasturing.  The  second, 
third,  and  fourth  columns  show  the  crops  to  be  grown  on  each  of 
the  lots  during  the  three  years. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmer's  Bulletins  Nos.  331  and  411; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiinent  Station  Bulletins  Nos.  150, 
174  and  185.  The  teacher  should  supplement  the  foregoing  lesson 
with  timely  notes  from  the  suggestions  found  in  these  bulletins. 

Practical  Work. — Pig  club  members  should  prepare  for  winter 
and  spring  grazing  during  this  month.  If  only  one  pig  is  to  be 
raised,  a  small  amount  of  forage  will  be  necessary.  But  if  it  is 
the  purpose  of  the  club  member  to  grow  a  spring  litter  of  pigs 
forage  crops  for  spring  and  summer  grazing  should  be  seeded 
now.  Adapt  the  suggestions  in  this  lesson  to  the  needs  of  the 
individual  case. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  copy  in  their  note 
books  the  pasture  plan  given  in  the  foregoing  lesson. 

Drawing:  Draw  to  scale  three  grazing  lots  of  an  acre  each. 
Have  them  lie  side  by  side.  Show  the  location  of  lanes  and 
gates  arranged  conveniently  for  transferring  hogs  from  one  to  the 
other. 

Geography:  Iowa,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Indiana,  Nebraska,  Ohio, 
and  Kansas  are  the  seven  States  leading  in  the  production  of 
hogs.  Locate  these  States  on  the  map.  What  are  the  leading 
crops  grown  by  these  States.  Is  there  any  relation  between 
the  crops  grown  and  raising  hogs? 

History:  Organize  a  pig  club.  Emphasize  the  fact  that  corn 
club  members  should  be  pig  club  members  so  that  profitable 
rotations  may  be  practiced.  Secure  a  copy  of  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  566.  Write  to  the  Maryland  Experiment  Station  for  litera- 
ture relating  to  clubs. 

11 


Arithmetic:  Based  on  local  prices  find  the  cost  of  the  ni^iterial 
necessary  to  enclose  the  three  pasture  lots  outlined  in  the  draw- 
ing exercise.     Set  posts  8  feet  apart  and  use  30-inch  hog  wire. 

LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:    The  Orchard. 
Topic :    Gathering  Apples. 

Importance. — The  work  of  the  orchardist  is  by  no  means  at 
an  end  when  his  apples  are  ready  to  harvest.  In  fact  the  methods 
of  gathering  as  well  as  of  marketing  the  apples  have  as  much  to 
do  with  the  profits  realized  as  the  methods  of  growing. 

When  the  Apple  Should  Be  Picked. — This  is  an  important 
matter.  To  the  grower  too  early  or  too  late  may  mean  failure. 
If  picked  too  soon  the  fruit  are  undersized,  poorly  colored  and 
inferior  in  quality.  If  allowed  to  hang  on  the  tree  too  long  the 
keeping  and  shipping  qualities  are  impaired.  Early  picking 
reduces  the  danger  from  windfalls,  yet  on  the  other  hand  apples 
color  better  when  left  on  the  trees  comparatively  late.  The 
time  for  picking  red  apples  is  generally  judged  by  their  color,  and 
that  for  green  apples  by  the  color  of  their  seeds.  The  latter  is 
one  of  the  most  rehable  indications  of  ripeness.  A  winter  apple 
picked  just  as  the  seeds  have  turned  a  light  brown  and  before 
they  become  dark  around  the  edges  is  found  to  have  not  only 
full  flavor,  but  also  good  keeping  qualities.  Red  apples  are 
frequently  left  on  the  tree  after  the  seeds  indicate  maturity  to 
allow  them  to  take  on  more  color.  Bright  days  and  frosty  nights 
bring  out  color  rapidly,  even  to  fruit  grown  on  the  shady  side  of 
the  tree.  Some  varieties  such  as  Stayman's  Winesap,  Ben  Davis' 
and  Paragon  may  be  left  on  the  tree  to  good  advantage,  while 
Wealthy,  Wagner  and  Rome  would  drop.  Jonathan  should  be 
picked  as  soon  as  well  colored  or  it  will  not  keep  in  storage. 
Much  of  the  complaint  lodged  against  the  Jonathan  for  not 
keeping  well  in  storage  is  probably  due  to  late  picking. 

Picking  the  Fruit. — The  way  from  the  orchard  to  the  market 
is  likely  to  be  a  bumpy  one  and  unless  properly  safeguarded  the 
apple  receives  bruises  that  depreciate  its  value.  Apples  should 
be  picked  carefully.  They  should  not  be  jerked  or  shaken  off 
the  tree.     Such  action  destroys  fruit  spurs  and  injures  the  fruit. 

12 


If  the  stems  are  pulled  out  or  the  skin  broken  rot  fungi  are  likely 
to  enter  and  the  keeping  qualities  impaired.  The  hand  should 
grasp  the  apple  firmly  but  gently,  with  the  thumb  pressing  the 
stem  against  the  side  of  the  fruit,  then  with  a  sharp  bend  the 
stem  mijoints  from  the  fruit  spur.  The  apple  should  then  be 
laid  in  the  receptacle,  not  thrown  or  dropped. 

Receptacles. — ^Buckets,  baskets,  bags  or  aprons  are  in  general 
use.  The  padded  half-bushel  basket  with  swing  handle  and  wire 
hook  to  hang  on  limbs  is  probably  the  best.  In  case  of  apron  or 
bag  the  weight  is  continually  on  the  picker  and  there  is  also  danger 
of  bruising  the  fruit  while  pushing  or  leaning  against  the  limbs 
or  ladder. 

Textbook  Reference.— Nolan,  pp.  60-64;  Davis,  pp.  200-201; 
Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  167-169. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  No.  144;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  113. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Take  a  trip  with  the  class  to  observe 
a  progressive  farmer  gathering  apples.  Require  the  pupils  to 
take  notes  on  the  observations.  Note  the  ladders  and  receptacles 
used  and  the  manner  in  which  the  fruit  is  removed  from  the  spurs. 
Are  the  apples  over-ripe,  under-ripe,  or  in  the  proper  condition? 
(2)  Have  members  of  the  class  bring  to  school  several  varieties 
of  recently  picked  apples.  Study  them  to  give  the  pupils  practice 
in  recognizing  varieties;  to  determine  whether  or  not  they  have 
been  properly  picked  and  whether  or  not  they  are  at  the  proper 
stage  of  ripeness. 

Pupils  having  home  project  or  club  work  with  apples  should 
make  reports  on  their  methods  of  picking  apples.  Write  to  the 
Maryland  Experiment  Station  for  literature  on  apple  clubs. 

Correlations. — Language:  Require  pupils  to  write  out  in  full 
the  notes  taken  while  visiting  the  orchard  and  those  taken  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  the  different  varieties  at  school. 
Carefully  copy  these  in  the  note  books. 

Drawing:  Make  sketches  of  the  different  kinds  of  receptacles 
used  in  the  community  for  gathering  apples. 

Geography:  Locate  on  the  map  the  principal  markets  for  the 
apple  crop  of  the  community. 

History:  Study  the  principal  varieties  of  apples  grown  in  the 
communily,  as  dates  when  introduced,  dates  of  ripening,  success 
with  which  grown  and  keeping  qualities. 

13 


Arithmetic:  Have  pupils  of  the  class  report  the  yields  of  the 
orchards  at  the  homes  of  the  pupils  and  from  these  facts  develop 
problems.     Compare  varieties  as  to  yields. 

LESSON   SIX. 

Subject:    Vegetable  and  Fruit  Gardening. 
Topics:     (1)  The  Home  Garden.     (2)  Small  Fruits. 

The  Home  Garden:  Saving  Seeds. — Many  garden  plants  are 
maturing  seed  this  month,  hence  it  is  the  proper  time  to  select 
for  future  planting.     Select  plants  (fig.  3)  that  are  well  developed 


Fig.  3.    Ideal  Plants  and  Choice  Fruit  From  Which  to  Select  :!>eed 

Tomatoes. 


and  healthy  under  normal  conditions,  but  not  those  having  en- 
joyed abnormally  favorable  conditions.  When  the  fruit  is  fully 
matured  or  the  seed  thoroughly  ripe  carefully  pick  the  best 
specimens.  Dry  seeds  are  easily  shelled  out  and  stored.  Pulpy 
specimens  like  the  tomato  should  be  crushed  in  a  suitable  vessel 
and  let  stand  for  a  few  days  until  they  ferment.  Then  fill  the 
vessel  with  water  and  let  stand  a  few  hours  to  settle.  The  pulp 
will  rise  to  the  top  and  can  be  poured  off  with  the  water,  leaving 

14 


the  seed  in  the  bottom.  The  seed  should  be  given  a  second 
washing  by  adding  water,  letting  it  stand  as  before,  and  then 
pouring  it  off.  The  seed  should  now  be  placed  on  a  fine  sieve  or 
a  thin  cloth  and  let  dry.  Take  care  to  put  the  seed  where  mice 
or  birds  cannot  get  it.  When  the  seed  is  dry  put  it  in  thin  cotton 
bags  and  hang  up  in  a  warm  dry  room  to  insure  thorough  drying. 
Glass  jars  are  very  satisfactory  for  permanent  places  in  which 
to  store  vegetable  seeds. 


Fig.  4.    a,  Seconds;  b,  Firsts;  c,  Well  Arranged  and  Well  Crated. 


Planting  Fall  Vegetables. — Spinach,  kale  and  turnips  may  yet 
be  sown  in  the  southern  counties  of  the  State.  Sow  Jersey 
Wakefield  cabbage  seed  that  plants  may  be  had  for  fall  setting. 
Also  sow  Big  Boston  lettuce  to  secure  plants  to  be  grown  in  the 
cold  frame.  A  cold  frame  can  be  constructed  at  very  little  ex- 
pense and  by  its  use  a  supply  of  lettuce  may  be  provided  through 
a  large  part  of  the  winter.  Prepare  the  ground  for  setting  fall 
cabbage.   An  abundance  of  well  rotted  manure  should  be  plowed  in. 

15 


Small  Fruit. — Fall  bearing  strawberries  may  be  picked  every 
two  or  three  days  through  this  month.  Great  care  should  be 
exercised  in  picking  (fig.  4)  and  packing.  The  fruit  stems  should 
be  pinched  off  carefully  without  bruising  or  even  pressing  on  the 
berry  with  the  hand.  The  baskets  should  be  clean,  new  and  well 
filled  with  berries.  It  pays  to  put  a  good  product  in  good  con- 
dition on  the  market. 

The  final  picking  should  be  followed  by  mowing  the  patch  and 
burning  the  grass  as  soon  as  it  is  sufl^iciently  dry.  This  destroys 
foul  matter,  fungeous  diseases  and  insects.  Plow  between  the 
rows  throwing  the  furrows  together  in  the  middle  and  thin  the 
plants.     Cultivate  the  ground  level  between  the  rows. 

Grapes  to  sell  well  on  the  market  must  present  an  attractive 
appearance.  Hence  extreme  care  should  be  exercised  in  han- 
dling. The  bunches  should  be  removed  with  picking  shears  and 
should  be  handled  by  the  stem  to  avoid  destroying  the  "bloom." 
After  picking  the  grapes  should  be  carried  to  the  packing  shed 
and  all  green  and  defective  berries  should  be  removed.  So 
fill  the  basket  that  some  pressure  must  be  applied  to  bring  the  lid 
in  place. 

Textbook  References. — Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  154  and  185; 
Davis,  pp.  173,  196  and  199. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  154,  471,  255,  and 
198;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  Nos. 
160,  182,  180  and  116. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  pupils  bring  to  school  choice 
specimens  of  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  and  mature  beans.  Select 
those  specimens  that  are  suitable  for  seed  and  store  them.  (2) 
K  fall  strawberries  and  grapes  are  grown  in  the  community 
accompany  the  pupils  to  a  nearby  farm  and  give  them  practice 
in  picking  and  arranging  in  baskets.  If  practicable  have  berries 
brought  to  school  and  give  pupils  a  practical  lesson  in  arranging 
them  in  baskets. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  tomato  club  members  sub- 
mit written  reports  as  to  their  work  for  the  year. 

Drawing:  Tomatoes,  strawberries,  cucumbers,  and  grapes  in 
cluster  supply  excellent  drawing  material. 

Geography:  If  any  one  of  the  before  mentioned  vegetables  or 
fruits  is  grown  in  the  community  for  the  market  answer  the 
following  questions:  Is  there  a  farmers'  marketing  ckib?  What 
is  the  shipping  ppint?     To  what  market  shipped?     Is  the  fruit 

16 


or  vegetable  utilized  by  a  local  cannery?  Trace  on  the  map 
t  he  route  the  shipment  takes  from  the  community  to  the  market. 

History:  Have  each  pupil  of  the  class  write  an  account  of  the 
introduction,  development  and  the  success  with  which  any  one 
of  the  before  mentioned  crops  has  been  grown  in  the  community. 
Organize  tomato  clubs. 

Arithmetic. — ^Have  the  pupils  gather  data  at  their  homes  with 
reference  to  the  foregoing  crops  as  to  quantities  sold  and  prices 
received.  From  these  develop  problems  adapted  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  pupils.  Problems  should  also  be  developed  from 
reports  of  tomato  club  members. 

LESSON  SEVEN. 

Subject :    Poultry. 
Topic :    Houses. 

Site. — ^The  house  (fig.  5)  should  be  situated  in  a  convenient 
place  as  the  chickens  require  attention  several  times  during  the 
day.  A  rich,  sandy,  well  drained  soil  is  best.  If  the  ground  is 
damp  the  chickens  are  subject  to  roup,  rheumatism,  and  the 
like.  If  it  is  wet  and  muddy  the  hens  soil  their  eggs  with  dirty 
feet.  A  southern  or  southeastern  slope  of  the  land  should  be 
chosen  if  possible  as  such  a  site  is  naturally  warmer,  and  also 
protected  from  the  north  winds. 

The  House. — The  house  (fig.  5)  should  be  so  constructed  as  to 
be  convenient  to  the  attendant,  cheerful  to  the  birds,  dry,  well 
ventilated,  free  from  draughts,  and  should  be  economical  of  con- 
struction. The  styles  of  poultry  houses  are :  colony,  and  long  or 
continuous.  Colony  houses  are  used  most.  They  are  so  called 
because  they  shelter  one  flock  or  colony.  They  may  be  made 
portable.  This  admits  of  their  being  moved  from  one  place  to 
another  and  reduces  the  likelihood  of  disease.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  floors  used:  dirt,  board  or  cement.  Sometimes  a 
dirt  floor  is  inclined  to  be  damp.  In  this  case  a  layer  of  coarse 
material  like  rocks  or  broken  bricks  must  be  put  in  to  keep  the 
earth  floor  dry.  The  same  is  true  if  cement  is  to  be  used  on  a 
damp  site.  The  advantages  of  a  cement  floor  are  that  it  can  be 
cleaned  easily  and  lasts  well.  A  dirt  floor  is  cheap  and  furnishes 
a  dust  bath  for  the  birds,  but  it  is  hard  to  clean  and  diseases  are 
sometimes  bred  in  the  filth.  A  board  floor  is  very  good  except 
that  rats  may  get  under  it  and  cold  winds  sometimes  blow  up 

17 


through  it.  A  simple  way  to  construct  the  walls  is  to  use  a  single 
layer  of  boards  with  paper  on  the  outside.  A  double  wall  with 
air  space  between  is  sometimes  used.  This  latter,  however,  is 
most  always  damp.  There  are  several  kinds  of  roofs,  but  the 
most  popular  one  is  the  shed  roof.  It  is  simple  to  construct, 
inexpensive,  and  if  made  high  in  front  light  is  admitted  and  room 
is  provided  for  the  poultry  attendant  to  move  about  freely. 
The  rear  should  be  made  low  for  too  much  air  space  in  a  house 
makes  it  cold  in  winter.  The  size  of  the  house  depends  upon  the 
number  of  birds  to  be  housed.     Four  square  feet  of  floor  space 


Fig.  5.    Poultry  House  Adapted  to  Maryland  Conditions. 


is  about  average  for  each  fowl,  when  small  flocks  are  kept,  and 
they  have  to  be  kept  inside  a  great  deal. 

The  Accessories  of  the  poultry  house  are  roosts,  nests,  food 
troughs,  drinking  vessels  (fig.  6)  and  droppings  boards.  From 
6  to  10  inches  of  roost  space  should  be  given  each  bird.  All  the 
roosts  should  be  on  the  same  level  to  prevent  birds  fighting  for 
the  highest  points.  Nests  should  be  10  inches  by  12  inches  or 
larger,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  fowls.  Ventilation  of  the 
poultry  houses  is  very  important.  A  lack  of  ventilation  causes 
dampness,  foul  air,  and  a  consequent  weakness  in  the  fowls.  A 
large  part  of  the  front  and  the  front  only  should  be  entirely  open. 

18 


This  permits  an  interchange  of  air  by  diffusion  and  eliminates  the 
possibility  of  a  draught.  Even  with  this  arrangement  the  house 
should  be  at  least  14  feet  deep  and  the  roosts  placed  in  the  rear. 
On  very  cold  or  stormy  nights  a  muslin  curtain  can  be  let  down 
over  the  opening  in  the  front.  The  feed  hoppers  and  drinking 
vessels  should  be  convenient,  sanitary  and  of  sufficient  size. 

Textbook  References. — ^Davis,  pp.  288-291;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  p.  282;  Nolan,  p.  110. 

Teachers*  Reading. — Farmess'  Bulletins  Nos.  287  and  528; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  171. 
Supplement  the  lesson  with  timely  notes. 


Fig.  6. 


a,  Protected  Drinking  Trough;  b,  Protected  Feed  Trough; 
c,  Types  of  Drinking  Fountains. 


Practical  Exercise?. — (1)  Make  a  study  of  the  poultry  houses 
of  the  community.  Have  each  member  of  the  class  report  in 
detail  as  to  the  poultry  houses  at  his  own  home  and  at  the  homes 
of  his  immediate  neighbors.  (2)  Make  a  simple  drinking  foun- 
tain after  the  following  directions:  With  a  nail  make  a  hole  in 
the  side  of  a  tin  can  about  half  an  inch  from  the  open  end.  Fill 
the  can  quite  full  of  water  and  place  over  it  a  pan  about  two 
inches  deep.  Quickly  invert  both.  The  water  should  stand  in 
the  pan  as  high  as  the  nailhole  in  the  can.  This  will  show  the 
principle  of  certain  drinking  fountains. 

19 


Poultry  club  members  should  prepare  housing  facilities  and 
accessories  for  their  flocks. 

Correlations. — Language:  Require  the  pupils  to  make  in  writ- 
ing their  reports  on  poultry  houses  in  the  community.  These 
reports  should  be  copied  in  the  note  books. 

Drawing:  Require  drawings  of  feed  troughs,  drinking  vessels 
and  other  poultry  house  accessories. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  cost  of  materials  given  on  pages  90,  92 
and  93  of  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin 
No.  171.  Have  the  pupils  furnish  facts  from  their  homes  with 
reference  to  dimensions  of  poultry  houses  and  materials  used  in 
their  construction.     From  these  develop  problems  as  to  cost. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:    Dairying. 

Topic :     Care  and  Feed  of  Fresh  Milkers  and  Young  Calves. 

Feed. — If  the  cow  is  to  come  in  fresh  in  the  fall  she  should 
be  fed  a  liberal  ration  of  laxative  food  during  the  months  of  July, 
August  and  September,  unless  she  has  access  to  an  unusually 
good  pasture.  A  mixture  of  bran  and  corn  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  linseed  meal  is  recommended. 

After  the  calf  is  born  and  cow  should  be  fed  a  limited  amount 
of  sloppy  feed  such  as  bran  mash  with  leguminous  hay  for  three 
or  four  days.     Then  gradually  bring  her  to  a  full  feed. 

Care.-^During  the  first  three  or  four  days  the  entire  flow  of 
milk  should  not  be  drawn  at  one  time  as  milk  fever  is  likely  to 
follow  as  a  result  of  an  abnormal  flow  of  blood  to  the  udder. 

If  knots  or  lumps  form  in  the  udder  they  should  be  carefully 
removed  by  rubbing  or  massaging.  In  aggravated  cases  alternate 
applications  of  hot  and  cold  water  should  be  applied  to  the  udder. 

Milk  Fever.  Symptoms:  (1)  The  cow  becomes  apparently 
paralyzed  almost  all  over  the  body.  This  is  specially  noticeable 
in  the  limbs.  (2)  The  head  is  held  at  one  side  seemingly  in  an 
effort  to  see  the  udder.  Milk  fever  develops  in  from  one  to  four 
days  after  the  calf  is  born. 

Treatment:  Draw  the  milk  from  the  udder  and  pump  it  full 
of  air  using  a  milk  tube  and  a  bicycle  pump  (fig.  7).  When  the 
quarter  is  well  filled  with  air  tie  the  teat  with  tape  or  a  strip  of 
cloth  to  prevent  the  air  escaping.  The  air  should  be  kept  in  the 
udder  twenty-four  hours  or  longer. 

20 


The  Young  Calf. — For  the  first  few  days  the  calf  should  get 
nourishment  from  the  cow.  After  this  separate  the  calf  from 
the  cow  and  feed  it  her  milk.  The  calf  should  be  fed  three  times 
a  day  and  be  given  1-1 J  pounds  of  milk  at  each  feed.  This 
should  be  kept  up  for  at  least  three  weeks.  The  calf  may  be 
taught  to  drink  milk  by  putting  his  head  in  the  pail  and  forcing 
his  mouth  open  with  the  fingers.  After  the  calf  becomes  three 
weeks  old  whole  or  skim  milk  should  be  continued  and  this  supple- 
mented with  corn  meal  and  a  good  quality  of  hay.  If  skim  milk 
is  to  be  fed  the  change  from  whole  milk  should  be  gradual  requir- 
ing about  a  week  to  make  the  change.     The  calf  may  be  taught 


v^^-^-J--^ 

Iff 

i''  M  / 

=:^ 

^ 

\ 

u 

C 

a 

Fig.  7.  Improvised  Apparatus  for  Treating  Milk  Fever:  A,  Bicy- 
cle Pump;  B,  Bottle  Containing  Cotton;  C,  Rubber  Tubing  With 
Milk  Tube  at  the  End. 


to  eat  meal  by  rubbing  small  amounts  on  its  nose.     This  causes 
the  calf  to  Hck  the  meal  and  cultivate  a  taste  for  it. 

Textbook  References. — No  particular  material  is  given  in  the 
textbooks  on  this  phase  of  the  subject. 

Teachers*  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  Nos.  169,  181;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  280. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Let  each  pupil  select  a  young  calf 
at  his  or  her  own  home  and  care  for  it  along  the  lines  suggested 
in  the  foregoing  lesson.  Teach  it  to  drink  milk  and  to  eat  meal. 
(2)  The  care  of  a  calf  for  a  year  or  longer  provides  a  splendid 
project  for  a  pupil. 

21 


Correlations. — ^Language  and  Drawing:  Draw  and  describe 
the  equipment  necessary  to  treat  milk  fever. 

Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  on  the  amount  and  value  of 
whole  milk  necessary  to  feed  a  calf  until  it  is  three  weeks  old. 
Ten  calves. 

LESSON  NINE. 

Subject:  Flower  Gardening. 
Topic :  Home  and  School. 

Care  of  growing  Flowers. — The  weather  is  usually  fine  this 
month  and  very  little  attention  is  required,  but  on  nights  when 
frosts  threaten  cover  the  flower  beds  and  plants. 

Preparing  for  Fall  Planting. — Order  hardy  bulbs  such  as  tulips, 
hyacinths,  narcissi,  lilies,  crocus  and  the  like.  Seeds,  cuttings, 
and  rooted  plants  of  biennials  and  perennials  may  be  ordered 
now.  Prepare  the  beds  for  the  bulbs  and  seeds  by  thoroughly 
spading  and  pulverizing  the  soil.  An  abundance  of  manure 
should  be  worked  into  the  soil.  A  well  drained  site  should  be 
selected  and  the  bed  well  rounded  to  shed  water. 

Planting. — Bulbs  may  be  planted  this  month  and  later  so  long 
as  the  soil  is  in  working  condition.  By  planting  early  a  good 
root  growth  is  developed  before  severe  cold  weather  sets  in. 
Tulips  should  be  set  5  to  6  inches  apart  and  5  to  6  inches  deep; 
narcissi,  6  inches  apart  and  4  inches  deep;  crocus,  2  to  4  inches 
apart  and  2  inches  deep.  In  planting  measure  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  bulb.  Bulbs  may  be  used  either 
for  beds  or  borders.  Crocus  and  other  low-growing  kinds  give 
pleasing  effects  when  planted  on  the  lawn. 

Handling  Dormant  Plants. — Plants  that  have  finished  active 
growth  and  are  through  flowering  may  be  lifted  and  divided. 
Use  a  sharp  spade  or  knife  in  dividing  the  roots  or  underground 
stems  and  see  to  it  that  each  division  has  several  eyes  or  buds. 
Such  plants  as  the  peony  should  be  divided  with  a  knife  so  that 
there  is  at  least  one  bud  with  each  division.  The  divisions  should 
be  reset  where  wanted.  Seeds  of  biennials  and  perennials  may 
be  sown  the  latter  part  of  the  month. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  p.  180;  Nolan,  p.  244;  Burkett, 
Stevens  and  Hill,  p.  108;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  p.  260. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  218,  134,  185. 
Write  to  the  Maryland  Experiment  Station  for  plans  of  home  and 
school  yards. 

22 


Practical  Exercises. — Lay  out  the  flower  beds  at  the  school 
and  at  the  homes.  Order  seeds,  bulbs  and  plants.  Prepare  and 
fertilize  the  beds  and  plant. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  write  letters  order- 
ing catalogues  and  flower  seeds. 

Drawing :  Draw  to  scale  the  flower  garden  locating  the  different 
beds  and  borders. 

LESSON  TEN. 

Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Crops. — Cut  and  shock  com.  This  may  be  done  by  hand,  with 
the  harvester  or  with  any  one  of  a  number  of  corn  cutters.  The 
method  employed  depends  upon  the  amount  of  corn  and  the 
other  work  to  be  done  on  the  farm  at  this  season.  The  proper 
stage  at  which  corn  should  be  cut  is  indicated  by  the  bottom 
blades  and  the  outer  husks  becoming  dry. 

Begin  sowing  wheat  this  month  in  the  western  part  of  the  State. 
Wheat  and  vetch  or  oats  and  vetch  for  spring  grazing  should  be 
sown  this  month.  Either  one  of  these  combinations  should 
follow  hay  stubble  and  precede  com. 

Buckwheat  should  be  harvested  when  the  first  grains  are 
matured. 

Farm  Animals. — This  is  the  month  to  lay  out  and  start  a  con- 
tinuous hog  pasture.  If  a  permanent  blue  grass  pasture  is  not 
feasible,  plan  a  rotation  as  suggested  in  the  lesson  of  this  month. 
A  fall  crop  of  rape  is  possible  in  the  southern  portions  of  Mary- 
land. If  there  is  corn  to  be  hogged  down,  turn  the  hogs  in  the 
field  as  soon  as  the  grains  have  become  dented. 

All  cattle  should  have  access  to  permanent  pastures,  sheep 
should  graze  the  wheat  stubble,  and  a  patch  of  early  rye  or  oats 
should  be  sown  to  provide  grazing  for  poultry. 

The  wheat  stubble  should  be  mowed  often  so  that  the  growth 
will  be  sufficiently  tender  to  be  utilized  as  a  hay  for  wintering 
live  stock.  Nothing  in  the  way  of  forage  should  be  allowed  to 
go  to  waste. 

Horticulture. — Begin  gathering  apples  as  they  ripen.  Those 
on  the  outer  branches  ripen  first  and  should  be  gathered  before 
they  are  over-ripe  and  lose  their  keeping  qualities. 

Fall  strawberries  should  be  picked  as  often  as  every  two  or 
three  days.  Continue  picking  until  frost.  Fruiting  canes  of 
raspberries   and   blackberries   should   be   removed.     Also   clean 

23 


out  and  burn  the  weeds.     Trim  out  new  canes  and  burn  them 
along  with  other  rubbish. 

The  fall  garden  should  be  given  attention.  Care  for  growing 
plants.  Some  of  the  border  plants  may  be  sown  during  the  first 
of  September,  especially  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  State.  This 
is  the  month  to  select  vegetable  seeds. 

REFERENCES. 

Teachers  should  provide  themselves  with  the  literature  referred 
to  in  the  foregoing  lessons.  These  publications  may  be  had  free 
and  much  of  the  value  of  these  lessons  is  lost  if  the  references  are 
not  utilized. 

Write  the  Division  of  Publications,  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  the  following:  Farmers' 
Bulletins  Nos.  113,  The  Apple  and  How  to  Grow  It;  134,  Tree 
Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds;  154,  The  Home  Fruit  Garden: 
Preparation  and  Care;  185,  Beautifying  the  Home  Grounds; 
198,  Strawberries;  218,  The  School  Garden;  255,  The  Home 
Vegetable  Garden;  280,  A  Profitable  Tenant  Dairy  Farm;  287, 
Poultry  Management;  292,  Cost  of  Filling  Silos;  313,  Harvesting 
and  Storing  Corn;  331,  Forage  Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and 
Oklahoma;  339,  Alfalfa;  411,  Feeding  Hogs  in  the  South;  415, 
Seed  Corn;  427,  Barley  Culture  in  the  United  States;  515,  Vetches; 
528,  Hints  to  Poultry  Raisers;  537,  How  to  Grow  an  Acre  of  Corn; 
550,  Crimson  Clover:  Growing  the  Crop;  562,  The  Organization 
of  Boys'  and  Girls'  Poultry  Clubs;  566,  Boys'  Pig  Clubs;  578, 
The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage;  586,  Collection  and  Preser- 
vation of  Plant  Material  for  Use  in  the  Study  of  Agriculture; 
589,  Home-made  Silos;  606,  Collection  and  Preservation  of 
Insects  and  Other  Material  for  Use  in  the  Study  of  Agriculture; 
617,  School  Lessons  on  Corn.  Also  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  Bulletin  132,  Correlating  Agriculture  With  the 
Public  School  Subjects  in  the  Southern  States. 

Write  to  the  Maryland  Experiment  Station,  College  Park, 
Md.,  for  the  following:  Bulletins  Nos.  144,  Apple  Culture;  150, 
Pig  Feeding  Experiments  and  Two  Kinds  of  Hog  Houses;  157, 
Some  Experiments  with  Poultry;  160,  Strawberries;  169,  Cow- 
testing  Association;  171,  Poultry  Notes;  174,  Hog  Cholera; 
180,  Tomatoes:  Varieties,  Diseases,  Culture;  181,  Inexpensive 
Aids  in  Producing  Sanitary  Milk;  and  182,  Small  Fruits. 

24 


OCTOBER. 
Introduction. 

This  is  the  second  of  the  series  of  monthly  publications  setting 
forth  lessons  in  elementary  vocational  agriculture  for  the  public 
schools  of  Maryland.  The  same  plan  is  followed  as  in  the  Sep- 
tember issue.  Teachers  should  familiarize  themselves  with  the 
introductory  statement  of  that  number. 

LESSON   ONE. 

Subject:  Soil. 

Topic:  Managing  Manure. 

Importance. — Manure  is  so  valuable  that  nmch  attention  should 
be  given  to  its  management.  The  fact  that  farm  animals  are  be- 
ing housed  at  night  makes  it  necessary  to  consider  this  important 
lesson  this  month. 

Applying  Manure  to  the  Soil. — ^When  practicable  manure 
should  be  spread  on  the  fields  as  it  accumulates.  In  this  way 
losses  from  leaching  and  fermentation  are  avoided.  The  three 
methods  commonly  employed  in  putting  manure  on  the  field 
are  (1)  placing  it  in  heaps  about  the  field  and  allowing  it  to  re- 
main some  time  before  being  spread,  (2)  broadcasting  it  and 
allowing  it  to  lie  for  a  time  or  plowing  it  under  immediately,  and 
(3)  applying  it  in  the  hill  or  drill  with  the  seed.  The  first  method 
is  objectionable  because  it  increases  labor,  permits  fermentation 
and  leaching,  and  does  not  admit  of  uniform  distribution.  Broad- 
casting (figs.  1  and  2)  is  the  best  practice  when  the  land  is  level, 
the  soil  covered  with  grass,  or  the  manure  can  be  plowed  in  im- 
mediately. This  method  insures  uniformity  of  distribution, 
requires  a  minimum  of  labor,  and  reduces  the  losses  due  to  fer- 
mentation and  leachiftg.  Application  in  the  hill  or  drill  is  ad- 
visable only  when  the  supply  of  manure  is  limited  and  the  immedi- 
ate effect  is  desired.  This  method  is  valuable  in  forcing  truck 
crops. 

25 


Fig.  1.  A  Good  Method,  but  the  Labor  Cost  is  too  Great  Except 
ON  Very  Small  Farms. 


Fig.  2.  The  Best  Method,  but  the  Investment  is  too  Great  for 
Very  Small  Farms. 


26 


Storing  Manure. — When  it  is  impracticable  to  spread  the 
manure  on  the  soil  as  it  accumulates  it  should  be  collected  and 
(figs.  3  and  4)  stored.  The  manure  shed  should  have  a  good  roof 
and  a  close  fitting  or  cement  floor.  As  the  manure  is  stored  it 
should  be  packed  firmly. 


Fig.  3.    A  Good  Manure  Shed  with  Convenient  Arrangement. 

Textbook  References. — Nolan,  pp.  149-152;  Davis,  pp.  76-81; 
Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  21-24. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  No.  122;  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  192. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  the  members  of  the  class  re- 
port the  methods  being  employed  at  their  homes  in  the  manage- 


FiG.  4.    A  Wasteful  Practice  in  Handling  Manure. 

27 


merit  of  manure.  What  lands  are  receiving  the  broadcast  appli- 
cations? (2)  Club  members  should  begin  spreading  manure 
on  their  plats.  An  accurate  record  of  the  weights  of  manure 
applied  should  be  kept. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  reduce  to  writing 
their  reports  on  the  methods  of  manure  management. 

Arithmetic: — Develop  problems  determining  the  value  of 
manure  stored  or  distributed  on  the  farms  represented  by  the 
pupils  of  the  class.  Show  by  these  exercises  that  fertilizer  saved 
is  money  made. 

LESSON   TWO. 

Subject:  Crops. 
Topic:  Sowing  Wheat. 

Preparation  of  Seed  Bed. — Fallow  land :  This  is  land  that  has 
been  planted  to  wheat  or  grass  the  preceding  year  and  that  has 
received  bare  cultivation  or  has  grown  a  leguminous  crop  during 
the  summer  immediately  preceding.  Fallow  land  should  be  in 
good  tilth  if  it  has  been  properly  cultivated  and  is  now  ready  for 
the  seed  drill. 

Corn  land:  The  customary  and  possibly  the  best  practice  in 
preparing  corn  land  for  wheat  sowing  is  to  give  it  a  thorough 
surface  tillage  with  some  kind  of  harrow.  In  some  sections  of 
the  state  the  preference  of  the  farmers  seems  to  be  to  plow  the 
corn  ground.  This  is  generally  where  the  corn  fields  are  likely 
to  be  weedy.  If  the  soil  is  plowed  to  some  depth,  the  roller  should 
be  used  to  firm  it  before  planting  the  wheat. 

Tobacco,  potato,  and  tomato  lands:  These  crops  should  be 
followed  by  wheat  in  order  that  it  may  gather  the  excess  of  plant 
food  left  in  the  soil  by  these  crops  which  have  been  highly  fertilized. 
Soils  having  grown  these  crops  are  prepared  for  seeding  wheat  by 
simple  surface  harrowing. 

Fertilizers. — Wheat  is  a  crop  that  requires  a  relatively  large 
amount  of  phosphoric  acid.  This  makes  raw  bone  a  favorite 
fertilizer  with  wheat  growers.  Raw  bone  contains  about  22  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent  of  ammonia.  A  good 
formula  for  wheat  is  nitrate  of  soda  100  pounds,  muriate  of 
potash  L50  pounds,  bone  tankage  or  dried  fish  700  pounds,  and 


28 


acid  phosphate  1,050  pounds.  An  application  of  from  200  to  500 
pounds  per  acre  is  the  practice.  Amounts  smaller  or  larger  than 
these  would  be  unprofitable.  The  fertilizer  should  be  applied  at 
the  time  of  seeding.     Wheat  drills  have  fertilizer  compartments. 

Selecting  and  Treating  Seed. — ^To  avoid  damage  from  smut 
seed  should  be  selected  from  a  crop  known  to  have  been  free  from 
smut  and  to  have  been  kept  clean.  But  to  make  assurance  doubly 
sure  the  seed  should  be  treated  with  a  solution  of  copper-sulphate 
(blue  stone)  or  formalin.  The  copper  sulphate  solution  is  com- 
posed of  1  pound  of  copper  sulphate  to  4  gallons  of  water.  This 
should  be  placed  in  barrels  or  tubs  and  the  wheat  immersed  in 
it  for  a  few  minutes.  When  all  kernels  are  thoroughly  wet  the 
grain  should  be  removed  and  dried.  The  formalin  solution  is 
composed  of  1  pint  of  formalin  to  45  gallons  of  water.  The 
grain  should  be  sprinkled  or  soaiked  in  this  solution  until  every 
kernel  is  thoroughly  wet  and  then  removed  and  dried. 

Seeding. — Time:  The  dates  of  seeding  wheat  in  Maryland 
range  from  October  1  in  the  mountain  section  to  November  30 
in  the  southern  parts  of  the  State.  There  should  have  been 
at  least  one  killing  frost  before  planting  to  prevent  damage  by 
the  Hessian  fly.  If  wheat  comes  up  before  the  Hessian  flies  are 
killed  by  frost,  they  lay  eggs  on  the  young  plants.  These  pass  the 
winter  either  in  the  flax  seed  or  larva  stage  and  develop  into 
flies  in  the  spring. 

The  rate  at  which  seed  should  be  sown  depends  upon  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil,  and  the 
time  of  planting.  If  the  soil  is  fertile  or  made  so,  it  produces  a 
larger  crop.  If  the  soil  is  comparatively  dry  or  the  date  of  plant- 
ing late,  more  seed  should  be  sown  to  insure  a  stand.  A  regular 
grain  drill  should  be  used  in  planting.  If  grass  is  to  follow  wheat 
the  timothy  seed  should  be  sown  at  this  time. 

Textbook  References. — Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  97,  98;  Bur- 
kett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  192-197;  Davis,  pp.  148-150;  Nolan, 
pp.  44-48. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  147;  Farmers'  Bulletins  507,  596,  640. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  the  pupils  bring  to  school 
specimens  of  wheat  seed.  Examine  them  carefully  separating 
them  into  three  lots;  namely,  large,  plump  kernels;  small,  faulty 
kernels;  and  impurities.     (2)  Make  a  collection  of  the  different 

29 


varieties  of  wheat  seed  being  planted  in  the  community.  Place 
a  few  kernels  of  each  variety  in  a  small  bottle  and  label  the  bot- 
tle. Compare  the  kernels  of  the  different  varieties  as  to  size, 
shape,  and  color.  See  Farmers'  Bulletin  586.  Which  variety 
has  produced  the  best  yield? 

Correlations. — Language :  Have  pupils  copy  in  their  class  book- 
lets the  formulas  suggested  with  which  to  treat  wheat  kernels 
for  smut. 

Drawing:  Make  drawings  of  wheat  kernels. 

Geography:  Locate  the  principal  wheat  growing  States  and 
countries  on  the  map.  Compare  them  with  Maryland  as  to 
latitude,  longitude,  area,  and  agricultural  productions. 

History:  Wheat  was  the  principal  crop  of  the  Nile  Valley 
(Egypt)  in  ancient  times.  When  the  stream  overflowed  the 
valley  the  farmers  sowed  their  grain  and  the  sediment  in  the  water 
settled  down  over  the  kernels  and  covered  them.  What  is  the 
connection  between  this  incident  and  the  expression  ''Cast  your 
bread  upon  the  waters,  etc.?" 

What  variety  of  wheat,  if  any,  has  been  developed  in  the  com- 
munity or  section?  Has  it  been  grown  more  successfully  than 
other  varieties?  To  what  extent  have  the  varieties  grown  in 
the  community  been  improved? 

Arithmetic :  Develop  problems  determining  the  cost  of  solutions 
for  treating  wheat  seed  and  the  cost  of  seed  wheat  being  sown 
on  the  farms  of  the  community. 

LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  Crops. 
Topic:  Judging  Com. 

Importance. — One  of  the  greatest  factors  in  the  matter  of  in- 
creasing the  yield  of  corn  is  that  of  improving  the  seed.  Instead 
of  buying  from  seed  houses  the  farmers  should  improve  the  seed 
of  the  variety  already  adapted  to  the  community.  This  can  be 
accomplished  by  knowing  good  seed  and  selecting  it.  Practice 
in  judging  familiarizes  one  with  what  good  seed  corn  should 
be  like.  As  the  corn  in  the  shock  is  being  husked  the  ears  that 
were  selected  and  marked  in  the  field  should  be  separated  from 
the  general  crop.     Only  the  best  of  the  field-selected  ears  should 

30 


be  kept  for  seed  and  to  this  end  they  should  be  carefully  studied 
or  judged. 

Judging. — Require  each  member  of  the  class  to  bring  to  school 
ten  ears  of  corn.  Have  each  pupil  to  judge  the  several  lots  of 
ears  after  the  accompanying  score  card. 

Explanation  of  the  card. — (1)  Trueness  to  type  means  that 
each  ear  should  be  similar  to  an  ideal  ear  of  the  particular  variety. 
(2)  Shape  of  ear  has  reference  to  its  being  cylindrical  and  tapering 
slightly  toward  the  tip.  (3)  Purity  of  ear  implies  that  there 
should  be  no  mixture  in  the  color  of  grains  and  that  the  cob 


should  be  white  if  the  corn  is  white  and  red  if  the  corn  is  yellow. 
(4)  Poor  vitality  is  indicated  when  the  husks  adhere  to  the  corn, 
when  the  tips  of  the  husks  are  black,  and  when  the  kernels  are 
undeveloped  and  loose  on  the  cob.  (5)  The  tips  should  be  regu- 
lar, uniform,  and  properly  proportioned  with  the  body  of  the  ear. 
The  rows  shoulci  extend  well  out  to  the  end  and  the  kernels  should 
closely  resemble  those  of  the  main  part  of  the  ear.  The  same  in 
general  should  be  true  of  the  butts.  (6)  All  kernels  should 
he  uniform  in  size  and  approximately  wedge  shaped.     (7)  The 

31 


Score  Card  for  Corn 


Variety 

F.vhihi'f.  Nn 

PERFECT 

scorer's 

CORRECTED 

Maturity  and  seed  condition 

25 
15 
15 

15 

10 
5 

5 

5 
5 

To  be  of  value  for  grain,  corn  must  mature 
and  produce  good,  hard  seed. 
Uniformity 

Ears  should  be  alike  in  shape,  size,  color, 
indentation  and  size  of  kernel. 
Kernels \ 

Flat    side,    slightly    wedge-shaped    with 
large,  smooth  germ.    Edge,  with  parallel 
sides    and    of    medium    thickness.    Not 
chaffy. 
Weight  of  ear 

Dent  varieties,  as  usually  planted,  pro- 
duce only  one  ear  per  stalk,  hence  yield 
per  acre  depends  largely  upon  weight  of 
shelled  corn  per  ear. 
Length  and  proportion 

Varies  with  locality  and  variety.    Experi- 
ments show  that  a  continued  selection  of 
short,  thick  ears  reduces  the  yield. 
Butts   

The  base  of  the  ear  should  be  covered  with 
even  sized  kernels  in  straight  rows  which 
are  a  continuation  of  those  at  the  center 
of  the  ear.    The  shank  should  be  large 
enough  to  support  the  ear  and  no  larger. 
Tips 

Should  be  covered  with  kernels  of  the 
same  depth  as — and  in  rows  which  are  a 
continuation  of— those  at  the  center  of  the 
ear. 
Space  between  rows 

' 

Should   be   very   slight    and   in   straight 
lines. 
Color 

The  color  of  both  grain  and  cobs  should  be 
uniform    showing    trueness    to    type    or 
strain. 

♦ 

Total 

100 

Remarks 

Name  of  scorer Date  of. 

32 


most  desirable  lengths  of  ears  range  from  9  to  11  inches.  The 
average  circumference  of  the  ear  should  be  about  three-fourths 
of  the  length.  (8)  There  should  be  only  slight  furrows  between 
the  rows  of  kernels.  Space  between  the  kernels  on  the  cob  indi- 
cates immaturity  and  poor  vitality.  (9)  The  proportion  of  corn 
to  cob  depends  upon  the  depth  of  kernels,  size  of  cob,  maturity, 
furrows,  and  space  on  cob.  The  proportion  of  grain  should  be  86 
to  87  per  cent  and  the  proportion  of  cob  should  be  13  to  14  per 
cent. 

Arranging  an  Exhibit. — Select  ten  ears  (fig.  5)  of  the  same 
variety,  uniform  in  size  and  shape.  In  the  display  arrange  them 
in  the  order  of  their  lengths. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  132-138;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  66-68;  Nolan,  pp.  49-55;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp. 
107-109. 

Teachers'  Reading — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  141;  Farmers'  Bulletins  415,  617. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Judging  provides  practical  work. 
(2)  Corn  club  members  should  submit  a  report  of  their  year's 
work  including  cost  of  production,  methods  of  fertilization  and 
cultivation,  yield,  exhibits  made,  prizes,  and  the  like. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  each  pupil  of  the  class  de- 
scribe the  best  ear  of  corn  judged  by  him. 

Drawing:  Make  sketches  of  good  and  poor  ears.  Good  and 
poor  kernels. 

History:  Why  is  Indian  corn  so  called?  Learn  of  its  cultivation 
and  uses  by  its  original  growers. 

Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  from  the  reports  of  club  mem- 
bers. Make  a  survey  of  the  community's  corn  production. 
Determine  the  total  yield  in  the  community,  the  yield  on  each 
farm,  and  the  yield  per  acre. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  The  Apple  Crop. 
Topic :  Grading  and  Packing. 

Importance  of  Grading. — The  grading  of  apples  is  becoming 
more  important  every  day.  No  grower  can  expect  to  realize 
the  highest  returns  from  his  crop  unless  it  is  properly  graded. 
The  chief  complaint  on  the  part  of  buyers  is  improper  grading. 

33 


Many  good  apples  bring  very  low  prices  because  they  are  care- 
lessly or  deceitfully  packed. 

Sorting  Tables. — There  are  various  styles  (fig.  6)  of  sorting 
tables  in  use.  Generally  speaking,  a  table  should  be  3  feet  wide, 
6  to  8  feet  long,  and  6  inches  deep.  The  sides  and  bottom  should 
be  provided  with  a  layer  of  canvas,  burlap,  or  padding  to  prevent 
bruising  the  fruit. 

Sorting. — Apples  selected  for  market  should  be  uniform  in  size 
and  color,  and  be  free  from  bruises,  disease,  and  worms.     To 


Fig.  6.    Sorting  Table — Hand  Selecting. 


secure  the  best  results  in  sorting  each  apple  should  be  hand 
selected.  This  insures  against  defects.  The  man  doing  the 
sorting  should  have  convenient  access  to  two  baskets,  one  for 
each  of  the  two  grades  of  apples.  This  enables  him  to  work 
rapidly.  Faulty  fruit  should  be  thrown  aside.  Extreme  care 
should  be  exercised  not  to  bruise  the  fruit  in  sorting  and  packing. 
Apple  Packages. — ^Barrels  and  boxes  are  used  for  packing  apples. 
The  barrel  is  more  generally  used  as  it  is  less  expensive  and  re- 

34 


quires  less  skill  in  packing.  The  box  is  recommended  only  when 
fancy  apples  of  high  quality  are  to  be  marketed.  The  extra  cost 
of  packing  in  boxes  is  justified  only  when  fancy  prices  are  received 
for  the  fruit.  The  producer  of  large  quantities  of  medium  grade 
fruit  having  unskilled  labor  for  packing  should  use  the  barrel  as 
a  package. 

Packing  Apples. — Remove  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  and  stand 
it  on  its  head.  A  layer  of  corrugated  paper  or  a  cushion  head 
protector  is  then  placed  in  position.     It  adds  to  the  attractive- 


FiG.  7.    Another  Form  of  Sorting  Table. 

ness  of  the  fruit  if  a  circle  of  plain  or  laced  white  paper  is  next 
placed  in  position.  The  barrel  is  then  ready  for  facing.  This 
operation  requires  some  skill  and  experience  to  do  it  well.  The 
facers  should  be  of  the  same  grade  as  the  rest  of  the  apples  except 
that  they  may  be  more  highly  colored.  Beginning  at  the  outer 
edge  place  the  apples  in  concentric  circle  with  stems  down.  The 
standard  barrel  has  a  head  17|  inches  in  diameter.  With  apples 
3  inches  in  diameter  there  will  be  15  apples  in  the  outer  circle, 

35 


9  in  the  next,  and  3  in  the  center.  With  apples  2f  to  2|  inches  the 
arrangement  will  be  17  in  the  outer  circle,  11  in  the  next,  and  4 
in  the  center.  If  the  apples  are  3|  inches  or  larger  the  arrange- 
ment will  be  13,  7,  1.  See  that  the  apples  in  the  first  layer  (fig. 
8)  fit  snugly.  Some  packers  put  in  another  layer  of  facers  but 
this  is  not  essential.  Over  the  facers  carefully  pour  a  half  bushel 
of  apples  at  a  time  until  the  barrel  is  full.  The  basket  or  apron 
should  be  let  down  into  the  barrel  before  emptying.  After  each 
half  bushel  is  emptied  shake  the  barrel  vigorously  so  that  the 


Fig.  8.    Barrel  With  Head  Removed  Showing  Proper  Facing. 


apples  will  settle  firmly  into  place.  When  the  barrel  is  quite  full 
arrange  the  upper  layers  with  the  hands  so  that  a  level  surface 
may  be  formed  against  which  the  lid  may  press.  The  stem  ends 
of  the  top  layer  should  be  turned  up.  This  part  of  the  operation 
is  called  (fig.  9)  "taihng."  The  fruit  should  extend  slightly  above 
the  staves  to  allow  for  shrinkage  and  to  tighten  the  fruit  in  the 
barrel  when  the  head  is  forced  into  position.  Over  this  layer  place 
a  corrugated  cushion  or  pad  (fig.  9),  put  on  the  bottom  and  force 
(fig.  9)  it  into  the  chime.     The  hoops  should  then  be  driven  down 

36 


and  tlie  bottom  nailed  in.     The  barrel  is  now  ready  for  marking 
or  branding. 

Box  Packing. — A  box  of  the  following  dimensions  is  desirable: 
10|  inches  deep,  11 J  inches  wide,  and  18  inches  long.  The  apples 
should  be  wrapped  with  sheets  of  tissue  paper  9  inches  square. 
The  diagnonal  method  of  packing  is  considered  best.  This 
oonsists  in  arranging  the  apples  in  rows  of  3  and  2  or  2  and  2 
(fig.  10,  b  and  c)  the  rows  running  in  the  direction  of  the  width. 
A  sheet  of  heavy  paper  may  be  placed  between  each  layer  of 
apples.     Heavy  paper  should  bo  used  on  the  upper  and  lower 


Fig.  9.  From  Right  to  Left:  A  Barrel  ** Tailed;"  a  Barrel  With 
Padding  in  Position;  Forcing  a  Bottom  into  Place. 


surfaces  as  in  the  barrel  pack.  Being  able  to  arrange  the  apples 
so  as  to  produce  the  ''bulge"  in  the  sides  of  the  box  requires  a 
great  deal  of  experience. 

Branding. — ^A  brand  is  a  guarantee  as  to  the  size  and  contents 
of  a  package.  Every  producer  should  put  his  apples  in  a  standard 
package  and  truthfully  brand  it  as  to  its  contents.  This  can  be 
done  at  little  expense  and  a  much  better  price  can  be  secured  as  a 
result. 

A  copy  of  the  law  concerning  the  brand  should  be  secured  and 
studied  so  that  the  apple  producer  may  not  unwittingly  make  a 
mistake  in  branding  and  thereby  lay  himself  liable  to  prosecution. 

37 


The  following  is  a  suggestive  brand  for  a  barrel  package: 

Standard  Grade 
Minimum  Size  2|  Inches 

Winesap 

Grown  and  Packed  By 

John  Smith 

Fred.erick,  Md. 

Packed  under  the  Act  of  Congress  approved  Aug.  3,  1912. 


1  ^5--  3"  #  i* 
^  m  (,%  m 


'  ^  ill  i^  i^ 


Fig.  10.  (b)  "Square"  Box  Pack;  (c)  "Diagonal'*  Box  Pack. 

Textbook  References. — ^Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  167-170; 
Nolan,  pp.  60-63;  Davis,  pp.  200,  201. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  144  and  178. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Employ  the  accompanying  card  and 
score  plates  of  apples  brought  to  school  by  pupils.  (2)  Take  the 
class  to  a  nearby  orchard  where  apples  are  being  packed.  Use 
the  accompanying  card  and  score  a  barrel  package.  (3)  Apple 
club  members  should  follow  the  instructions  in  the  foregoing 
lesson  in  packing  their  fruit  for  market. 


38 


Score  Card  for  Apples — Plate 


Variety 

PERFECT 
SCORE 

student's 

SCORE 

CORRECTED 
SCORE 

Size   (normal):  Neither  too  large  nor  too 
small 

10 
25 
20 
20 
25 

Color,  typical 

Freedom  from  blemish 

Texture  and  flavor 

Uniformity  and  trueness  to  type 

Total 

100 

Remarks 

Name  of  pupil , Date. 


Score  Card  for  Apples — Barrel  Pack 


Variety. 


PERFECT 
SCORE 


student's 

SCORE 


CORRECTED 
SCORE 


Uniformity  of  size. 

Uniformity  of  color 

Uniformity  of  shape 

Condition  and  freedom  from  blemishes 

Attractiveness,  including  facing  and  tailing 

Barrel,  and  trimmings. 

Firmness  of  pack 


20 
20 
10 
20 
15 
5 
10 


Total. 


100 


Remarks 

Name  of  pupil Date. 


Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  prepare  score  cards 
for  use  in  the  practical  exercises. 

Drawing:  Make  a  sketch  of  a  sorting  table;  of  the  "facing" 
of  a  barrel  pack. 

Arithmetic:  Have  the  pupils  report  the  number  of  barrels  of 
apples  packed  at  their  homes.  Determine  the  total  production 
in  the  community.  Find  the  value  of  the  community  production 
based  on  market  prices.  Develop  problems  on  the  number 
of  apples  of  different  sizes  in  a  standard  barrel. 


39 


LESSON   FIVE. 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topic:  Feeding  the  Flock. 

Principles  to  be  Observed. — (1)  Such  feed  stuffs  must  be  em- 
ployed as  give  sufficient  bulk.  Some  of  the  more  important  of 
these  materials  are  bran,  alfalfa  meal,  cut  clover,  green  feeds, 
and  oats. 

(2)  The  feed  must  be  rich  in  protein  or  nitrogen.  This  is  sup- 
phed  by  such  materials  as  beef  scrap,  meat  meal,  bugs,  worms, 
linseed  meal,  and  gluten  meal. 

(3)  Carbohydrates  or  starches  are  necessary  to  furnish  heat, 
energy,  and  fat.  These  are  supplied  by  corn,  wheat,  and  other 
grains.  Such  materials  also  contain  some  protein,  but  not  a 
sufficient  amount. 

(4)  Fats  serve  the  same  purpose  as  carbohydrates  and  are  more 
efficient.     Fat  is  supplied  by  some  grains  and  meat  scraps. 

(5)  Poultry  feed  must  contain  a  liberal  amount  of  mineral  mat- 
ter. The  amount  depends  upon  the  age  of  the  fowls  and  the  work 
that  they  are  doing.  Young  chickens  and  laying  hens  need  more 
than  other  fowls.  Crushed  oyster  shell  and  ground  bone  furnish 
mineral  matter  in  a  desirable  form  and  these  should  be  kept  before 
the  fowls  at  all  times  unless  mineral  matter  is  supplied  from  other 
sources. 

Rations. — The  price  of  feed  is  an  important  factor  in  selecting 
the  ingredients  that  enter  into  the  ration.  As  far  as  possible 
home  grown  materials  should  be  used. 

There  are  many  combinations  of  feeds  that  produce  good  re- 
sults. The  following  ration  is  adapted  to  Maryland  conditions 
and  is  suggested  as  one  that  will  give  good  results  under  average 
conditions : 

Mash :  lbs. 

Bran 200 

Middlings  (wheat) 100 

Corn  meal  or  chops 100 

Beef  scrap 100 

Salt 2i 

Scratch  Feed : 

Whole  corn  an^  wheat,  equal  parts. 


40 


The  mash  should  be  dry  fed  in  troughs  or  hoppers  and  can 
be  safely  kept  before  the  fowls  at  all  times.  The  grain  should 
be  fed  in  a  Utter  of  straw  or  leaves  morning  and  night.  The 
fowls  are  made  to  work  for  their  grain  feed.  Fowls  prefer  grain 
to  dry  mash  but  by  regulating  the  amount  of  grain  fed  they  may 
be -made  to  eat  as  much  mash  as  grain.  Clean  water,  grit  and 
crushed  oyster  shells  should  be  kept  before  the  birds  at  all  times. 

If  the  fowls  can  not  get  green  feed  in  their  runs,  it  is  necessary 
to  furnish  them  with  cabbage,  beets,  sprouted  oats,  clover,  alfalfa, 
hay  or  some  other  green  material  that  they  like.  Mangels  should 
not  be  fed  until  about  Christmas  time  as  they  have  an  injurious 
effect  on  the  fowls  when  fed  before  they  have  ripened.  If  fowls 
get  large  amounts  of  insects  and  worms  from  the  range  or  are 
given  milk  regularly,  less  meat  feed  need  be  fed. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  ^pp.  292-294;  Maryland  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  Bulletin  157,  171. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  287,  528. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  members  of  the  class  to 
report  the  poultry  rations  fed  at  their  homes.  (2)  Make  a  trip 
with  the  class  to  a  well  conducted  poultry  yard  and  inspect  the 
methods  and  materials  employed  in  feeding.  (3)  Poultry  club 
members  should  plan  their  rations  to  secure  the  best  returns 
from  their  laying  hens. 

Correlations. — Language:  The  pupils'  reports  in  exercise  1 
should  be  made  in  writing  and  copied  in  the  class  notebooks. 

Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  on  the  cost  of  the  rations  fed 
to  poultry  at  the  homes  of  the  members  of  the  class.  To  secure 
the  necessary  data  for  these  problems  it  is  necessary  for  the 
pupils  to  keep  records  of  the  amounts  of  feed  used  for  a  week  or 
some  other  definite  period.  Also,  determine  the  number  and 
value  of  the  eggs  produced  for  the  same  period.  Compare  the 
results. 

LESSON   SIX. 

Subject:  Dairying. 

Topic:  The  Management  of  Dairy  Cows. 

Pasturage. — The  pastures  are  becoming  short,  but  dairy  ani- 
mals should  be  kept  on  them,  especially  during  open  weather. 

41 


Beginning  with  October  the  feed  must  be  materially  increased. 
This  is  particularly  true  with  reference  to  forage. 

Rations  for  Dairy  Cows. — ^When  10  pounds  of  alfalfa  or  12 
pounds  of  clover  hay  are  fed  with  35  pounds  of  corn  silage,  one  of 
the  following  grain  mixtures  should  be  fed  at  the  rate  of  1  pound 
of  grain  to  3 J  pounds  of  milk  for  a  cow  weighing  1000  pounds: 


400  pounds  corn  chop. 

200  pounds  bran. 

100  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


600  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 
200  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 
100  pounds  glutei!  feed. 


200  pounds  corn  chop. 
300  pounds  ground  oats. 
100  pounds  cotton  seed  meal 
50  pounds  gluten  feed. 


300  pounds  ground  barley. 
200  pounds  gluten  feed. 
100  pounds  bran. 
50  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


When  8  to  10  pounds  of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  cowpea  hay  are  fed 
with  about  10  pounds  of  corn  stover,  feed  1  pound  grain  to  3 
pounds  milk. 


600  pounds  corn  chop. 

200  pounds  dried  brewers  grain. 

100  pounds  bran. 

100  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


600  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 

500  pounds  ground  oats. 

TfOO  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


400  pounds  corn  chop. 
200  pounds  wheat  middlings. 
200  pounds  rye  distillers  grain. 
100  pounds  gluten  feed. 
50  pounds  linseed  meal. 


600  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 
400  pounds  ground  oats. 
100  pounds  bran. 
100  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


When  about  5  pounds  clover,  alfalfa,  or  cowpea  hay  are  fed 
with  20  pounds  corn  silage  and  10  pounds  corn  stover,  feed  1  pound 
grain  to  3  pounds  milk. 


500  pounds  corn  chop. 

200  pounds  bran. 

150  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


400  pounds  corn  chop. 
200  pounds  ground  oats. 
150  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


200  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 

200  pounds  ground  oats. 

100  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


500  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 
150  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 
50  pounds  linseed  meal. 


400  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 
300  pounds  buckwheat  midd'ings. 


300  pounds  corn  and  cob  meal. 
300  pounds  ground  barley. 
200  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 


42 


When  20  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  are  fed,  corn  and  cob  meal  will 
furnish  the  balance  of  the  required  nutrients. 

When  only  corn  stover  is  fed,  a  grain  mixture  rich  in  protein 
is  jiecessary  such  as  the  following : 

400  pounds  gluten  feed. 

200  pounds  rye  distillers  grain. 

100  pounds  cotton  seed  meal. 

Rations  for  Calves. — The  young  calves  that  have  been  taught 
to  eat  should  gradually  be  put  on  a  ration.  Too  much  concen- 
trated food  should  not  be  given  at  the  beginning  but  as  the 
winter  advances  the  amount  should  be  increased.  The  following 
(rations)  are  suggested  for  calves  that  are  eating  feed  rations: 

1.  Bran,  1  pound.  >  3.  Shelled  corn,  2  pounds. 
Middlings,  1  pound.                           "      Bran,  1  pound. 

Good  hay,  all  calf  will  eat.  Good  hay,  all  calf  will  eat. 

2.  Ground  oats,  2  pounds.  4.  Hominy  chop,  2  pounds. 
Good  hay,  all  calf  will  eat.  Bran,  1  pound. 

Good  hay,  all  calf  will  eat. 

Housing  Calves. — On  cold  nights  or  during  stormy  weather 
calves  should  have  access  to  an  open  shed.  If  there  are  only  two 
or  three  calves  on  the  farm  they  should  be  kept  in  a  closed  stall 
during  extreme  weather. 

Care  of  the  Male. — It  is  important  that  the  male  be  kept  in 
thrifty  condition.  He  should  have  access  to  a  pasture  for  graz- 
ing and  exercise  in  open  weather.  A  suitable  ration  is  3  to  4 
pounds  of  grain,  10  to  15  pounds  of  silage,  and  what  hay  the  animal 
will  eat. 

Textbook  References. — BufTum  and  Deaver,  pp.  237-239; 
Nolan,  pp.  91-97;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  293-296;  Davis, 
pp.  310-320.     (In  the  last  reference  omit  impertinent  paragraphs.) 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  104,  169;  Farmers'  Bulletins  22,  578. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  the  members  of  the  class  re- 
port in  writing  the  rations  fed  to  the  different  dairy  animals  at 
their  homes.  These  reports  should  include  the  kinds  and  weights 
of  food  materials.  (2)  If  possible  the  teacher  should  go  with  the 
class  to  a  farm  where  dairying  is  important.     Take  notes  on  the 

43 


rations  fed  and  the  methods  of  mixing  and  feeding.  (3)  List 
the  feeds  grown  in  the  community. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  copy  in  their  class 
notebooks  the  reports  made  and  the  notes  taken.  Supplement 
the  spelling  exercise  with  the  names  of  feeds. 

Geography:  Locate  the  three  leading  dairy  States.  Compare 
them  with  Maryland  as  to  location,  area,  population,  and  agri- 
cultural industries. 

Arithmetic:  Based  on  local  prices  determine  the  cost  of  the 
rations  suggested  in  this  lesson. 

LESSON   SEVEN. 

Subject:  Farm  Animals. 

Topic:  (1)  Fattening  Meat  Hogs;  (2)  Feeding  Horses  and  Cattle. 

Meat  Hogs. — ^During  this  month  the  hogs  that  are  to  be  fattened 
for  butchering  should  be  put  on  a  ration  of  concentrated  food.  If 
the  rotation  plan  suggested  in  the  September  lesson  is  followed 
the  hogs  should  now  be  ' 'hogging  down"  the  corn.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  plan  are  that  the  time  of  the  farmer  is  not  con- 
sumed in  gathering  the  corn  and  feeding  the  hogs.  To  balance 
the  ration  cowpeas  or  soy  beans  should  be  grown  with  the  corn. 
A  few  pumpkins  grown  with  the  corn  add  succulent  food  and  keep 
the  animals  in  a  thrifty  condition.  Provision  should  be  made 
for  supplying  the  hogs  with  an  abundance  of  fresh  water.  To- 
ward the  latter  part  of  the  feeding  period  a  roller  should  be  run 
over  the  ground  to  knock  down  any  standing  stalks.  An  acre 
of  good  average  corn  should  fatten  8  or  10  hogs.  The  nights  are 
now  becoming  cold,  hence  a  portable  house  or  a  temporary 
shed  should  be  provided  for  the  hogs.  Comfortable  quarters  are 
necessary  for  the  best  results. 

If  the  foregoing  plan  is  not  followed  the  hogs  that  are  to  be  pre- 
pared for  butchering  should  be  placed  in  a  small  yard  with  just 
sufficient  room  for  Hght  exercise.  Succulent  food  should  be  used 
in  small  quantities  and  fed  daily.  If  it  is  permitted  to  accumu- 
late in  the  hog  yard  fermentation  sets  up  and  unhealthy  con- 
ditions develop.  Corn  is  the  principal  feed  for  fattening  hogs, 
but  it  should  be  supplemented  with  nitrogenous  feed  to  balance 
the  ration.     The  following  combinations  are  suggested  as  rations: 

44 


1.  Corn  2  parts,  wheat  middlings  1  part. 

2.  Corn  2  parts,  soy  bean  meal  1  part. 

3.  Corn  5  parts,  linseed  meal  1  part. 

4.  Corn  9  parts,  tankage  1  part. 

The  daily  ration  of  a  hog  should  be  4  per  cent  or  tjV  of  the  live 
weight  of  the  animal.  Furnish  the  hogs  an  abundance  of  clean 
water,  and  clean,  comfortable  quarters. 

Horses. — The  work  horse  should  be  fed  liberally.  The  amount 
of  food  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  horse  and  the  character  of 
the  work  to  be  done.  Two  pounds  of  feed  for  each  100  pounds  of 
live  weight  is  usually  considered  sufficient  for  animals  at  steady 
work.  If  the  work  is  unusually  hard  this  amount  should  be 
slightly  increased  and  if  the  work  is  light  or  irregular  it  should 
be  slightly  diminished.  The  grain  should  make  up  about  two- 
thirds  the  feed  by  weight.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  is  com- 
paratively small  and  it  is  possible  to  feed  too  much  hay.  One 
pound  of  forage  to  100  pounds  of  live  weight  should  be  the  maxi- 
mum amount.  Most  of  the  forage  should  be  fed  at  the  evening 
meal.  Young  animals  should  be  fed  very  much  the  same  ration 
as  work  horses,  yet  in  a  smaller  quantity.  Mature  animals  not 
at  work  require  less  grain  and  relatively  more  forage.  The  fol- 
lowing combinations  are  suggested  in  making  up  rations: 

1.  Oats,  7  pounds;  corn,  6  pounds,  wheat  bran,  2  pounds; 
timothy  ha}^,  10  pounds. 

2.  Oats,  7  pounds;  corn,  8  pounds;  clover,  alfalfa  or  pea  vine 
hay,  10  pounds. 

3.  Corn,  7  pounds;  wheat  bran,  6  pounds;  and  all  the  corn 
stover  that  will  be  consumed  without  waste. 

The  grain  should  be  divided  into  three  equal  parts  and  fed  at 
morning,  noon  and  night.  Horses  should  be  watered  before  each 
meal.  Carrots  provide  an  excellent  succulent  food  for  horses 
during  the  winter  months. 

Beef  Cattle. — During  the  month  of  October  preparations  should 
be  made  for  protecting  beef  cattle  in  stormy  and  extremely  cold 
weather.  The  pastures  are  beginning  to  fail  and  the  cattle  should 
be  started  on  a  spring  ration.  This  should  be  increased  gradually 
until  a  full  ration  is  being  fed.  The  ration  should  be  made  so 
far  as  possible  of  home  grown  feeds.  A  good  combination  is 
corn  silage,  corn  and  cob  meal,  and  a  legume  hay  such  as  cowpea, 
soy  bean,  clover  or  alfalfa.     If  corn  stover  is  used  for  roughage 

45 


it  should  be  cut  or  shredded  so  that  the  part  not  eaten  may  be  used 
for  bedding.  Wheat  straw  is  usually  available  for  bedding,  if 
not,  leaves  may  be  used.  They  can  be  suppUed  at  $1.50  to  $2.00 
per  ton  and  they  contain  fertiUty  of  greater  value. 

If  legume  hay  is  not  available  as  roughage  it  is  necessary  to 
use  a  concentrated  food  containing  a  large  amount  of  protein. 
For  this  purpose  cottonseed  meal  or  soy  bean  meal  may  be  used. 
About  85  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  cottonseed  meal  may  be  saved 
and  added  to  the  soil  in  the  form  of  manure.  Hence,  if  the  manure 
is  well  cared  for  it  is  almost  impossible  to  lose  money  by  feeding 
cottonseed  meal. 

The  following  are  suggestive  combinations: 

1.  Cottonseed  meal,  2  parts;  corn  and  cob  meal,  1  part;  stover  or 
mixed  hay. 

2.  Cottonseed  meal,  1  part;  corn  and  cob  meal,  2  parts;  legume 
hay. 

3.  Cottonseed  meal,  2  to  5  pounds;  silage,  25  to  50  pounds. 
The  first  figures  are  the  amounts  of  the  ration  at  the  beginning  of 
the  feeding  period  and  the  second  figures  the  amounts  to  be  fed 
by  the  end  of  the  feeding  period. 

4.  The  following  is  a  good  ration  for  baby  beeves: 
Cottonseed  meal,  2  to  3  pounds;  silage  10  to  15  pounds;  legume 

hay,  5  to  7  pounds. 

Textbook  References. — ^Davis,  pp.  315-321;  Nolan,  pp.  91-97; 
Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  290-292;  Buffum  and  Deaver, 
237-240. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  168,  129,  121;  Farmers'  Bulletins  22,  170,  556, 
578,  580,  655. 

Practical  Exercises. — Each  boy  in  the  class  should  have  a  baby 
beef  and  become  responsible  for  the  care  and  feeding  of  it  during 
the  winter  months.  If  the  calf  is  to  be  marketed  in  early  spring 
the  fattening  process  should  begin  at  this  time.  Weigh  the  calf 
to  begin  with  and  once  each  succeeding  week.  Keep  a  weekly 
record  of  the  calf's  weight  and  a  daily  record  of  its  feed.  Those 
pupils  that  can  not  secure  a  calf  should  care  for  some  other  small 
animal  during  the  winter  months.  Secure  reports  on  the  rations 
being  fed  at  the  homes  of  the  pupils.  Pig  club  members  should 
begin  finishing  off  their  meat  hogs.  They  should  follow  the  direc- 
tions in  this  lesson. 

46 


Correlations. — Language:  Prepare  tables  for  keeping  records 
in  connection  with  the  feeding  of  the  calf. 

Arithmetic. — Develop  problems  to  determine  the  cost  of  given 
weights  of  the  before  mentioned  rations;  also  of  the  rations  being 
fed  at  the  homes  of  the  pupils.  Base  calculations  on  local  prices 
of  feed  stuffs. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  Vegetable  and  Small  Fruit  Gardening 

Topics:  (1)    Planting  Small  Fruits;  (2)  Gathering  and 

Storing  Vegetables. 

Planting  Small  Fruits. — Kinds:  Raspberries,  blackberries,  cur- 
rants, gooseberries,  and  grapes  may  be  grown  throughout  the 
State  for  home  use  and  most  of  them  are  or  should  be  important 
as  commercial  crops,  especially  in  sections  adjacent  or  accessible 
to  cities.  During  this  month  sites  should  be  selected,  soil  pre- 
pared and  plants  ordered  preparatory  to  planting. 

Selecting  the  Site. — For  raspberries  good  air  drainage  is  neces- 
sary, especially  in  sections  where  there  is  likely  to  be  late  frost. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  Western  Maryland.  Hillsides  or 
mountain  slopes  should  be  utilized.  The  same  general  principles 
as  regards  sites  apply  to  the  other  small  fruits. 

Soil. — Raspberries  need  a  moderately  fertile  soil,  well  drained 
and  supplied  with  an  abundance  of  vegetable  matter.  Black- 
berries require  a  strong  clay  loam  with  an  abundance  of  vegetable 
matter  to  give  the  best  returns,  while  dewberries  thrive  best  on 
a  light  sandy  loam.  Currants  do  best  on  a  moist  clay  loam  with 
good  under  drainage.  Gooseberries  perefer  a  well  drained  clay 
loam  well  supplied  with  humus.  The  grape  flourishes  on  a  great 
variety  of  well  drained  soils,  but  a  deep  sandy  or  gravelly  soil 
is  preferable. 

Planting. — Raspberries  are  propagated  principally  by  means 
of  tips.  The  plants  may  be  set  in  hills  5  or  6  feet  apart  each  way. 
When  grown  in  rows,  the  plants  should  stand  3  feet  apart  and  the 
rows  should  be  6  feet  apart.  For  the  best  results  the  plantings 
should  be  renewed  every  four  years.  Blackberries  are  propagated 
by  root  cuttings  or  by  suckers.  When  planted  in  hills  the  plants 
should  stand  7  or  8  feet  apart  each  way;  in  rows,  8  feet  by  3  feet. 
Dewberries  should  stand  4  feet  apart  when  staked  and  6  by  3  when 

47 


trellised.  Currants  are  propagated  largely  by  cuttings.  One 
season's  growth  furnishes  the  best  source  of  cuttings.  When 
planted  in  hills  the  plants  should  stand  5  feet  each  way.  In  rows 
the  plants  should  be  4  feet  apart  and  the  rows  6  feet  wide.  Goose- 
berries may  be  propagated  in  the  same  way  as  currants.  Grapes 
grow  from  cuttings  or  from  grafts.  Plants  should  stand  8  feet 
by  8  feet  or  in  rows  10  feet  wide  with  plants  set  8  feet  apart. 

Varieties. — Black  Raspberries:  Kansas,  Hunger,  Cumberland 
and  Black  Diamond  are  the  most  popular.  Red  Raspberries: 
Cuthbert,  Thompson  Early,  Loudon,  Marlboro  and  Miller  are 
popular  varieties.  Blackberries:  Early  Harvest,  Snyder,  Mer- 
cerau,  Eldorado,  Blowers,  Ward  and  Rathbun  are  considered  good 
varieties.  Dewberries:  Lucretia  and  Austin  are  most  popular. 
Gooseberries:  Downing  and  Houghton  are  the  great  commercial 
varieties.  Other  profitable  varieties  are:  Pearl,  Mountain,  Jos- 
selyn.  Triumph,  Chatauqua  and  Keepsake.  Grapes:  The  popu- 
lar commercial  varieties  in  Maryland  are :  Moore  Early,  Concord, 
Niagara  and  Delaware.  Campbell  Early  and  Moore  Diamond 
are  varieties  of  merit.  The  Green  Mountain  should  be  planted 
extensively. 

Vegetables. — Gathering  and  Storing:  As  soon  as  there  are  signs 
of  heavy  frosts  the  pepper  and  egg  plants  should  be  pulled  up 
and  carried  to  a  sheltered  place.  The  green  tomatoes  should  be 
picked  and  spread  out  in  some  place  out  of  reach  of  frost.  The 
large  ones  will  ripen  and  may  be  used  for  soups.  The  smaller 
ones  should  be  used  for  pickle  or  chow-chow. 

Sweet  potatoes  and  turnips  should  be  gathered  and  stored.  If 
regular  houses  for  root  crops  are  not  provided,  potatoes  and  tur- 
nips should  be  banked  in  earth  piles.  Provide  a  slightly  elevated 
place  and  pile  the  roots  in  small  heaps.  Cover  first  with  a  layer 
of  straw  or  corn  stalks  and  next  with  earth  to  a  depth  of  six  or 
eight  inches.  For  additional  information  as  to  storing  potatoes 
see  Farmers'  Bulletins  520,  548. 

Textbook  References.— Davis,  pp.  198,  199,  178,  179;Burkett, 
Stevens  and  Hill,  p.  100;  Nolan,  pp.  230-232;  Buffum  and  Deaver, 
pp.  180-184, 187-188. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Experiment  Station  Bulletins 
180,  182;  Farmers'  Bulletins  213,  255,  471,  520,  548,  643,  647. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  members  of  the  class  bring  to 
school  grape  canes.     Practice  them  in  making  proper  cuttings. 

48 


Set  some  cuttings  in  a  corner  of  the  school  yard  to  form  roots. 
(2)  Make  a  survey  of  the  small  fruits  grown  in  the  community. 
This  survey  should  include  the  kinds,  the  varieties  of  each  kind 
the  success  with  which  each  kind  or  variety  has  been  grown  and 
the  purpose  of  growing  in  each  case,  whether  for  home  use  only  or 
for  market. 

Correlations. — Language:  Prepare  sheets  for  tabulating  the 
facts  obtained  from  the  small  fruit  survey. 

Drawing: — Make  sketches  of  proper  grape  cuttings. 

Arithmetic:  Make  outlines  covering  the  number  of  plants  for 
settings  given  areas  of  small  fruits.     Find  the  .cost  in  each  case. 

LESSON   NINE. 

Subject:  Flower- Gardening. 
Topic:  Home  and  School. 

Planting. — Prepare  the  soil  well  and  plant  bulbs.  Sow  seeds 
of  biennials,  perennials  and  lawn  grass.  Hardy  shrubs  may  be 
planted  now  or  even  later  if  the  soil  can  be  worked.  It  is  unwise 
to  plant  evergreens  at  this  season,  as  they  seldom  live  when  planted 
in  the  fall. 

Making  Soft  Wood  Cuttings. — If  it  is  desired  to  grow  during  the 
winter  such  plants  as  geraniums,  salvias,  etc.,  cuttings  should  be 
made  before  heavy  frosts  have  injured  the  plants.  To  determine 
whether  the  wood  of  a  plant  is  in  condition  to  make  cuttings,  take 
a  shoot  and  bend  it  abruptly.  If  it  breaks  clean  the  wood  is  in 
the  right  condition.  Wood  that  bends  without  breaking  should 
not  be  used. 

Winter  Care  of  Dormant  Plants. — ^After  the  foliage  of  cannas, 
dahlias,  colodiums,  etc.,  has  become  blackened,  cut  it  off  close  to 
the  ground.  Take  up  the  roots  and  allow  them  to  dry  partially 
in  a  shaded  place.  Then  store  them  in  a  dry,  cool  place  where  the 
temperature  will  not  drop  below  40° .  Gladiolus  and  kindred  bulbs 
may  be  stored  in  sawdust  or  in  paper  bags. 

Perennial  plants  may  be  protected  by  covering  them  with  leaves, 
straw,  or  other  litter.  This  should  be  done  when  the  plants  and  the 
ground  are  comparatively  dry.  Tender  and  half  hardy  plants 
such  as  roses,  shrubs  and  vines  should  be  protected  by  covering 
them  with  a  thick  layer  of  straw  or  by  burying  them. 

49 


Beds  and  Borders. — Clean  up  the  flower  beds  and  the  borders. 
Pull  up  and  haul  away  all  the  old  plants.  Cover  the  beds  with 
stable  manure  and  spade  the  soil  deeply.  Allow  the  beds  to  remain 
over  winter  in  this  state,  as  the  alternate  thawing  and  freezing 
have  a  beneficial  effect  upon  the  soil.  The  soil  around  perennial 
border  plants  should  be  spaded  up,  manured  and  raked. 

Textbook  References. — Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  260-263; 
Nolan,  pp.  244-249;  Davis,  pp.  184-187. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  134,  157,  185,  195,  218. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Plant  bulbs  of  tuhps,  hyacinths, 
narcissi,  lillies  and  the  like.  Also,  set  cuttings  and  rooted  plants 
of  biennials  and  perennials.  (2)  Make  arrangements  to  protect 
the  less  hardy  plants  of  the  school  and  home  grounds.  (3)  Col- 
lect and  mount  or  store  mature  flower  seeds.  See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  586.  (4)  Clean  up,  spade  and  manure  flower  beds 
and  borders. 

Correlations. — Language  and  drawing:  Require  the  members 
of  the  class  to  write  a  brief  description  accompanied  by  a  draw- 
ing of  each  kind  of  bulb  planted  this  month,  either  at  school  or 
at  home.  List  the  names  of  flowers  still  blooming  in  the  com- 
munity.    Make  drawings  of  some  of  them. 

LESSON  TEN. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Crops. — Husk  and  haul  in  corn.  Separate  the  ears  marked  for 
seed  and  store  them.  Haul  in  the  stover  and  put  it  under  cover. 
When  the  busy  season  is  over  it  should  be  shredded. 

Continue  sowing  wheat.  Treat  the  seed  with  a  solution  of  blue- 
stone  or  formalin.  Barley  and  rye  should  be  seeded  this  month. 
The  same  preparation  of  the  land  is  necessary  as  in  case  of  wheat. 
In  the  southern  portions  of  Maryland  the  more  hardy  varieties 
of  oats  such  as  the  Culberson  may  be  seeded  in  October.  In 
northern  and  western  Maryland  the  climate  is  too  severe  for  fall 
sown  oats,  hence  planting  should  be  deferred  until  spring. 

Haul  out  the  manure  and  spread  on  the  land.  If  it  is  de- 
sired to  store  some  for  a  particular  purpose,  provide  a  dry  shed. 

Farm  Animals. — Put  meat  hogs  on  a  heavy  ration  and  begin 
getting  them  ready  to  slaughter.  Brood  sows  should  be  well 
cared  for. 

50 


Feed  the  dairy  cows  liberally  so  that  they  will  not  fall  ofif  in 
their  milk  when  the  pastures  fail.  All  young  animals  such  as 
calves,  colts  and  pigs  should  be  provided  with  shelter  on  cold 
nights  and  stormy  days. 

Old  and  unprofitable  hens  should  be  separated  from  the  laying 
flock  and  prepared  for  market.  Laying  hens  should  be  given 
careful  attention.  The  season  of  high-priced  eggs  is  approaching, 
hence  the  hens  should  be  made  to  do  their  best  in  egg  production. 

Horticulture. — Pick,  sort  and  pack  apiples.  Make  preparations 
and  plant  small  fruits  for  home  use.  In  many  parts  of  the  State 
the  soil,  cUmatic  and  marketing  conditions  are  favorable  to  the 
growing  of  small  fruits  on  a  commercial  scale. 

Begin  a  campaign  to  prevent  and  destroy  insects  and  plant 
diseases.  Remove  the  earth  from  around  the  bases  of  peach  trees, 
leave  the  parts  exposed  for  a  day,  then  remove  all  the  borers  with 
a  knife  and  a  soft  wire  probe  and  replace  the  earth.  Clean  up 
all  fallen  apples  to  prevent  the  spread  of  insects  or  disease.  After 
the  apple  crop  is  removed  plow  the  land  and  allow  it  to  lie  fallow 
to  kill  larvae  and  pupae  of  insects  that  live  in  ground  over  winter. 
Examine  hedge  rows  and  underbrush  for  cocoons.  Either  destroy 
these  or  keep  them  in  a  screened  box  out  of  doors.  In  the  spring 
watch  for  developments. 

Plant  shrubbery  and  vines  at  school  and  at  home.  Plan  to 
make  the  home  and  the  school  grounds  more  attractive. 

Gather  and  store  vegetables  and  root  crops. 

LESSON   ELEVEN. 

Subject:  Nature  Study. 
Topics:  Plants;  Animals. 

(Note  to  teacher:  The  following  outline  furnishes  material 
in  nature  study  for  the  fall  months.  Interest  all  the  pupils  in 
this  work.  A  few  minutes  during  school  hours  once  or  twice  a 
week  should  be  devoted  to  this  work.  The  pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  make  observations  and  do  considerable  work 
outside  of  school  hours.) 

Forest  Trees. — Trees  are  putting  on  gay  colors  and  dropping 
nuts.  Take  advantage  of  these  attractive  features  to  famiharize 
the  pupils  with  the  names  of  plants.     Make  a  list  of  trees  of  the 


51 


community  and  accompany  each  name  with  a  brief  description 
of  the  appearance  of  the  plant.  Make  collections  of  leaves  and 
nuts.  Mount  the  leaves  in  a  booklet  provided  for  the  purpose 
and  store  the  nuts  in  a  large-mouthed  bottle  or  some  other  ves- 
sel. When  wood  matures  make  collections  from  different  forest 
trees.    See  Farmers'  Bulletins  586  and  468. 

Wild  Flowers  and  Weeds. — Make  a  hst  of  wild  flowers  that  are 
blooming  and  the  weeds  that  are  ripening  seed.  Those  that  can 
not  be  named  by  the  teacher  or  pupils  should  be  sent  to  the 
Maryland  Agricultural  College,  College  Park,  for  identification. 
Mount  the  flo\Vers  in  the  nature  study  booklets.  Each  pupil 
should  be  provided  with  a  notebook.  Make  collections  of  weed 
seeds,  mount  them  in  bottles  and  properly  label  them.  See 
Farmers'  Bulletin  586.  Study  the  seeds  to  determine  the  manner 
in  which  they  are  disseminated.  Are  they  spread  (a)  by  the 
wind,  (b)  by  adhering  to  men  or  animals,  (c)  by  seed  cases 
popping  or  exploding,  (d)  otherwise? 

Birds. — Make  a  list  of  all  birds  that  may  be  seen  this  month. 
Name  those  that  have  spent  the  summer  in  the  community,  those 
that  are  transients  or  on  their  way  south  for  the  winter.  Note 
the  summer  residents  that  migrate  this  month  or  later.  Also, 
note  those  that  come  from  farther  north  to  spend  the  winter. 
Classify  all  birds  listed  according  to  their  manner  af  catching 
insects.  The  four  methods  are:  (1)  Climbing  over  buds,  leaves 
and  limbs  for  insect  eggs;  (2)  searching  on  the  ground  for  cut- 
worms, crickets,  grasshoppers,  etc.;  (3)  looking  among  leaves 
and  branches  for  caterpillars;  (4)  perching  in  some  open  place  and 
darting  into  the  air  after  flies  and  beetles. 

The  following  biographical  outline  should  be  used  in  the  study 
of  individual  birds: 

I.  Description. — Size,  form,  color,  markings. 
II.  Haunts. — Uplands,  lowlands,  lakes,  rivers,  woods,  fields. 

III.  Movements. — Slow,  active,  hop,  walk,  creep,  swim. 

IV.  Appearance. — ^Alert,  pensive,  crest  erect,  tail  drooped. 
V.  Disposition. — Social,  solitary,  wary,  suspicious. 

VI.  Flight. — Slow,  rapid,  direct,  undulating,  soaring,  sailing, 

flopping. 
VII.  Song. — Pleasing,    unattractive,    continuous,    short,    loud, 
low.     Sing  on  the  ground,  on  a  perch,  in  the  air. 
VIII.  Call  Notes. — Surprise,  alarm,  protest,  warning. 

52 


IX.  Season. — Summer,   winter,    both.     Time   of    arrival   and 
departure. 

X.  Food. — Berries,  seeds,  insects — ^how  secured. 

XI.  Mating. — Habits  during  courtship. 

XII.  Nesting. — Choice  of  site,  material  in  construction,  num- 
ber and  kind  of  eggs,  time  for  incubation. 
XIII.  The  Young. — Food,  attention,  time  in  nest,  notes,  actions, 
flight. 

Secure  bird  pictures  from  the  Audubon  Society  or  from  the 
Perry  Picture  Company. 

Wild  Mammals. — Make  a  hst  of  the  wild  mammals  found  in  the 
community.  Which  are  harmful?  Which  not?  Which  are 
used  for  food?  Which  not?  Group  them  according  to  their 
manner  of  providing  for  the  winter:  (1)  Those  that  store  up 
nothing  like  the  rabbit  and  the  fox,*"  (2)  those  that  collect  a  supply 
and  store  in  a  hollow  tree  or  in  a  burrow  like  the  chipmunk  (ground- 
squirrel);  (3)  those  that  consume  a  great  deal  of  food  at  this 
time  and  lay  on  sufficient  fat  to  enable  them  to  sleep  all  winter, 
like  the  groundhog. 

Correlations. — Copy  in  the  notebook  the  facts  learned  concern- 
ing birds  and  ainimals.  Make  drawings  of  leaves,  flowers  and 
nuts. 

Geography : — Compare  the  homes  of  the  different  birds  studied 
as  to  locations.  Are  these  homes  permanent  or  temporary? 
Make  a  similar  study  of  the  homes  of  animals.  What  things 
constitute  the  food  supply  of  birds?  How  obtained?  Apply 
the  same  questions  to  wild  mammals.  How  do  birds  and 
wild  animals  spend  their  time?  How  do  fowls  and  domestic 
animals  spend  their  time?  How  do  people  spend  the  greater 
portion  of  their  time?  Making  homea  and  providing  a  liveli- 
hood? 

History :  Connect  the  Baltimore  Oriole  with  the  settlement  of 
the  State;  the  naming  of  the  State's  principal  city. 


53 


NOVEMBER. 

Introduction. 

This  is  the  third  of  the  series  of  pubhcations  in  elementary 
vocational  agriculture  for  the  public  schools  of  Maryland.  The 
same  plan  is  followed  as  in  the  preceding  months.  For  particu- 
lar instruction  in  connection  with  the  use  of  these  lessons  the 
teacher  should  refer  to  the  introductory  statement  in  the  Septem- 
ber number. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:  Soil. 
Topic :  Fall  Plowing. 

Plowing. — The  rush  of  harvesting  should  be  over  and  as  much 
time  as  possible  should  be  devoted  to  plowing  sod  land.  By  plow- 
ing sod  in  the  fall  or  early  winter  ample  time  is  given  for  the  decay- 
ing of  vegetable  matter  and  the  disintegrating  of  clods.  The  ad- 
vantages of  fall  plowing  are:  (1)  Injurious  insects  are  destroyed; 
(2)  spring  work  is  lessened;  (3)  ample  time  is  given  for  the  decay- 
ing of  vegetable  matter,  and  the  breaking  up  of  clods;  (4)  thorough 
surface  of  the  edged  up  furrow  checks  the  flow  of  water  from 
rains  and  melting  snow,  thereby  enabling  it  to  be  stored  for 
the  use  of  crops  in  dry  weather.  Fall  plowed  land  should  not  be 
harrowed  till  spring.  If  there  is  considerable  growth  of  vegetable 
matter  or  if  the  sod  is  very  heavy,  extreme  care  should  be  exercised 
not  to  turn  the  slice  completely  over,  but  merely  to  edge  it  up. 
In  the  event  the  slice  is  turned  over  the  vegetable  matter  forms 
a  blanket  which  prevents  the  moisture  from  passing  readily  from 
the  subsoil  to  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  slices  overlap 
the  vegetable  matter  may  be  easily  cut  and  mixed  with  the  soil. 
If  the  soil  contains  considerable  clay  the  moldboard  should  not 
be  so  steep  as  in  the  case  of  soil  that  contains  much  sand. 

The  steeper  the  moldboard  the  greater  the  sheering  action  and 
this  action  tends  to  produce  the  separate  grain  structure  in  the 

54 


soil.  Heavy  soil  should  not  receive  such  treatment  as  it  is  thus 
made  too  compact.  This  condition  is  desirable,  however,  in  the 
case  of  sandy  soil.  The  depth  of  plowing  depends  on  the  prac- 
tice in  previous  years  and  the  kind  of  crop  to  be  grown.  It  is 
not  considered  advisable  to  increase  the  depth  more  than  one 
inch  each  year.  Ultimately  soil  should  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of 
not  less  than  7  inches.  Root  crops  require  that  the  soil  be  plowed 
to  a  greater  depth  than  grain  or  other  crops. 

Plows. — Where  soils  are  stony  plow  shares  should  have  separate 
cast  points  so  that  they  may  be  replaced  rather  than  sharpened. 
On  soils  free  from  stones  and  gravels  and  comparatively  level, 
it  is  advisable  to  use  soft  centered,  steel  plows  with  the  share  all 
in  one  piece.  When  the  point  of  the  share  becomes  dull  it  should 
be  sharpened  by  an  experienced  blacksmith. 

The  Set  of  the  Plow. — To  test  a  plow  to  ascertain  whether  or 
not  it  is  properly  set,  place  a  straight  edge  along  the  sole  so  that 
it  touches  at  the  point  of  the  share  and  at  the  heel  of  the  landside. 
In  the  case  of  a  walking  plow  there  should  be  a  space  of  |  inch 
between  the  straight  edge  and  the  landside  at  the  point  just  back 
of  where  the  share  and  moldboard  connect.  In  the  case  of  riding 
plows  this  space  should  be  a  half  inch.  The  point  of  the  share 
should  dip  toward  the  land. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  70-73;  Buffum  and  Deaver, 
pp.  40-42. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  266. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  written  reports  of  the  pupils 
as  to  the  turn  plows  used  at  their  homes.  (2)  Take  the  class 
to  some  good  farm  or  to  a  hardware  store  and  study  a  turn  plow. 
Have  the  pupils  learn  to  name  the  parts  and  their  uses.  Take 
the  parts  of  the  plow  apart  and  set  them  up.  Test  the  set  of 
the  plow  set  up  and  observe  the  dip  of  the  point.  (3)  Corn 
club  members  should  be  plowing  their  land  in  preparation  for 
the  ensuing  crop. 

Correlations. — Language:  Require  the  pupils  to  write  a  state- 
ment covering  the  steps  taken  in  setting  up  a  plow. 

Drawing:  Make  sketches  of  the  parts  of  the  plow.  Indicate 
the  parts. 

History :  Have  a  member  of  the  class  prepare  a  statement  cover- 
ing the  use  of  turn  plows  in  the  community.  Information  as  to 
the  kinds  of  plows  used  should  date  as  far  back  as  reliable. 

55 


Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  showing  the  economy  in  using 
large  plows  instead  of  small  ones.  What  amount  of  land  can  be 
turned  in  a  day  with  a  2-horse  plow?  With  a  4-horse  plow? 
What  are  the  daily  wages  of  one  man  and  two  horses?  Of  one 
man  and  four  horses?  In  each  case  compare  the  cost  of  plow- 
ing a  20-acre  field.     A  40-acre  field. 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:  Poultry. 

Topics:  (1)  The  Care  of  Pullets,  (2)  Fattening  Poultry. 

The  Condition  of  Pullets. — Pullets  should  be  ready  to  lay  if 
they  have  properly  developed.  They  are  rather  delicate  and 
need  special  attention.  They  should  be  handled  gently  and  never 
frightened  so  that  they  may  produce  eggs  normally. 

Water  and  Feed. — Good,  pure  drinking  water  should  always 
be  at  hand.  Pullets  must  have  a  good  feed  like  that  suggested 
in  the  October  lesson.  The  protein  food  is  most  important,  as  a 
large  percentage  of  the  egg  is  composed  of  albumin  or  protein. 

Dry,  Sanitary  Quarters  are  necessary  otherwise  the  pullets 
are  subject  to  colds,  roup  and  other  diseases. 

Exercise  is  of  fundamental  importance.  Sufficient  exercise  is 
provided  if  the  pullets  are  permitted  to  run  on  an  open  range. 
If  the  runs  are  small  the  fowls  should  be  made  to  work  for  their 
feed.  Houses  should  be  bright  and  cheerful  inside  so  that  the 
pullets  can  remain  indoors  and  be  happy  and  comfortable  on  bad 
days. 

The  Ideal  Laying  Conditions. — Make  the  conditions  as  near 
spring-like  as  possible  for  that  is  the  natural  season  for  laying. 
Give  the  birds  fresh  air,  cheerful  quarters,  pure  water  and  egg- 
producing  feed  and  the  results  will  be  satisfactory. 

Selecting  Poultry  for  Fattening. — All  poultry  stock  no  longer 
useful  for  breeding  or  egg-producing  purposes  should  be  fattened 
and  marketed  during  the  Thanksgiving  and  Christmas  seasons. 
Hens  that  are  no  longer  profitable  as  layers  should  be  prepared 
for  market.  It  is  a  fairly  easy  matter  to  select  a  hen  that  is 
not  laying.  The  laying  hen  has  a  well  developed,  bright  red, 
healthy  looking  comb.  She  is  found  to  be  in  plump  condition, 
active  and  working  all  the  time.     By  examining  the  body  with 


56 


the  hand  it  is  found  that  the  abdomen  is  rather  full  and  the  two 
pelvic  bones  are  flexible  and  well  apart  so  that  several  fingers 
may  be  thrust  between  them.  Hens  not  conforming  to  such 
a  test  should  be  culled  out  and  fattened  for  market. 

Rations. — Fattening  rations  require  very  little  protein.  Corn 
and  its  products  are  used  largely.  The  following  is  a  good  ration : 
corn  meal,  100  pounds;  wheat  middlings,  100  pounds;  meat  meal, 
10  pounds,  mixed  with  water  and  fed.  This  should  be  sup- 
plemented with  a  little  green  feed.  Where  milk  is  available  the 
mash  can  be  moistened  with  it  and  the  meat  meal  left  out.  In 
fattening  fowls  do  not  feed  too  much  at  any  one  time.  Their 
appetites  may  be  ruined  by  one  over  feeding.  Give  them  what 
they  will  clean  up  at  each  feeding  so  that  they  will  be  hungry  each 
time. 

Methods  of  Feeding. — The  tjjree  methods  are  pen  fattening, 
crate  fattening  and  cramming;  but  pen  fattening  is  practiced 
most  by  farmers  and  small  raisers.  The  fowls  should  be  placed 
in  small  runs  to  prevent  their  taking  too  much  exercise  and 
wasting  flesh. 

Textbook  References.— Nolan,  pp.  110-111;  Doris,  pp.  293-294. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  Nos.  157  and  171;  Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  287, 
528,  and  656. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  each  member  of  the  class 
to  examine  a  hen  that  is  known  to  be  laying  and  one  that  is  known 
not  to  be  laying  and  report  in  writing  the  results  of  the  examina- 
tions. (2)  Poultry  club  members  should  select  fowls  for  fatten- 
ing and  get  them  ready  for  the  Thanksgiving  market. 

Correlations. — Language:  Written  work  is  provided  in  the 
report  called  for  in  the  practical  exercises.  Poultry  club  mem- 
bers should  write  letters  for  quotations  on  prices  of  poultry. 

Geography:  Locate  on  the  map  the  markets  to  which  the 
community  supply  of  poultry  is  shipped.  Do  the  farmers  sell 
to  a  community  market,  to  a  city  commission  merchant  or  to  a 
distant  retail  trade?  To  what  extent  is  the  parcel  post  employed 
in  shipping  poultry? 

Arithmetic:  Have  the  pupils  secure  facts  at  their  homes-  as 
to  the  poultry  sold  this  month.  From  these  facts  develop 
problems  adapted  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils. 


57 


LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  Dairying. 

Topic:      Production  of  Clean  Milk. 

Care  in  Milking. — Milk  is  a  food  that  is  most  susceptible  of 
contamination,  hence  unusual  care  should  be  taken  to  get  it  to 
the  consumer  in  a  sanitary  condition.  The  barn,  first  of  all, 
should  be  free  from  odors  and  dust.  This  means  that  the  barn 
must  be  kept  clean,  and  when  dust  is  present,  sprinkled  before 
milking  time.  Avoid  feeding  hay  or  silage  before  or  at  milking 
time.  The  cow  should  be  carefully  brushed  and  the  udder 
washed  before  milking  is  begun.  The  milker  should  be  a  healthy 
person,  wear  clean  clothing  and  have  clean,  dry  hands.  The  filthy 
practice  of  moistening  the  hands  with  milk  should  be  avoided. 

Handling  the  Milk. — ^As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  it  should  be 
removed  from  the  barn  to  the  milk  house,  cooled  to  a  temperature 
of  50°F.  and  kept  in  cold  water.  Milk  may  be  cooled  by  running 
it  over  a  cooler  or  stirring  it  in  cans  sitting  in  cool  water. 

Utensils. — The  hooded  pail  is  recommended  for  milking  as  it 
aids  in  keeping  out  dust.  After  milking  all  vessels  should  be  thor- 
oughly washed  with  a  good  cleansing  powder,  scalded  or  steamed 
and  secured  upside  down  in  a  place  where  contamination  from  dust 
is  not  likely. 

Textbook  References. — Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  296- 
297;  Nolan,  pp.   100-103. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  413,  490,  and 
602;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  181. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  If  possible  the  teacher  should  go  with 
the  class  to  a  dairy  or  to  a  farm  producing  dairy  products  for  mar- 
ket and  study  the  method  employed  in  handling  milk.  Take 
notes  on  the  care  exercised  in  milking,  the  manner  of  handling 
the  milk  and  the  utensils  used.  (2)  If  the  foregoing  exercise 
is  not  feasible,  have  the  pupils  make  written  reports- as  to  the 
practice  at  their  own  homes. 

Correlations. — Language:  Writing  up  the  reports  called  for 
in  the  foregoing  exercises  provides  written  work. 

Drawing:  Sketch  milk  vessels. 


58 


LESSON   FOUR. 

Subject:   Horticulture. 

Topics:      (1)  Gardening,  (2)  Small  Fruits. 

Storing  of  Root  Crops. — This  work  should  not  be  put  off  later 
than  the  first  of  November.  If  special  cellars  or  houses  are  not 
prepared  for  storing  these  crops,  temporary  kilns  may  be  used. 
Potatoes,  beets,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  mangel-wurzels,  and 
salsify  may  be  kept  well  if  placed  in  conical  piles,  covered  first 
with  straw  or  corn  stalks  and  then  with  a  layer  of  earth  of  suf- 
ficient depth  to  prevent  freezing.  If  the  conical  piles  are  of 
considerable  size  a  small  ventilating  tube  should  pass  from  the 
grouncl  up  through  the  center  of  the  kiln. 

Care  of  Garden  Crops. — Celery  should  be  covered  with  leaves 
and  litter  to  insure  protection  from, frost.  Cabbage  plants  grown 
from  seed  sown  in  September  should  be  set  on  the  east  side  of  a 
ridge  of  earth  thrown  up  with  a  plow.  The  ridge  affords  protec- 
tion from  cold,  northwest  winds.  Cabbages  that  are  well  ad- 
vanced but  green  should  be  pulled  up  and  planted  close  together. 
The  plants  should  be  protected  with  a  covering  of  straw  or  pine 
brush.  Mature  cabbage  must  have  the  heads  covered  so  that  frost 
cannot  get  to  them.  This  may  be  done  by  bending  the  heads 
down  and  covering  them  with  a  layer  of  earth.  Lettuce  plants 
should  be  set  in  cold  frames. 

Small  Fruits:  Planting. — ^All  small  fruits  such  as  currants, 
gooseberries,  grapes,  blackberries  and  raspberries  should  be  set 
this  month.     For  instructions  see  the  October  lesson.  * 

Management  Suggestions. — Repair  trellises  and  prune  the 
bearing  plants.  In  the  case  of  very  tender  plants  remove  them 
from  the  trellis,  lay  them  on  the  ground  and  cover  them  with 
soil. 

Textbook  References.— Doris,  pp.  157,  178,  179,  198,  and  199. 
Buvkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  204-205. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  255,  295,  433, 
548,  and  647;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulle- 
tin No.   133. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Secure  written  reports  from  members 
of  the  class  as  to  the  methods  of  storing  vegetables  used  at  their 
homes.  (2)  Have  the  pupils  of  the  class  report  the  kinds  and 
quantities  of  small  fruit  set  this  month. 

59 


Correlations. — Language:  Work  is  provided  in  writing  up  re- 
ports called  for  in  the  practical  exercises. 

Arithmetic:  Secure  through  the  members  of  the  class  the 
yields  of  potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  and  mangel-wurzels 
grown  in  the  community.  What  is  the  market  price  of  each 
of  these  products?  Develop  problems  on  these  facts  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  class. 

LESSON   FIVE. 

Subject:    Crops. 
Topic;       Corn. 

Importance. — Corn  is  Maryland's  leading  crop.  The  last 
census  shows  the  value  of  the  Maryland  corn  crop  in  1909  to  have 
been  $11,015,298;  the  wheat  crop,  $9,876,480;  the  oat  crop,  $584,- 
395;  hay  and  forage,  $6,011,749;  Irish  potatoes,  $1,782,954; 
sweet  potatoes,  $483,751;  tobacco,  $1,457,112.  Corn  is  not 
only  the  most  important  Maryland  crop,  but  it  is  by  far  the  most 
important  one  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  source  of  food  for 
both  man  and  animals,  and  has  many  other  uses. 

Plant  Relatives. — Corn  belongs  to  the  grass  family.  Among 
its  relatives  are  ordinary  grasses,  sorghum,  sugar-cane,  oats, 
wheat,  rye,  and  barley.  It  is  of  interest  to  know  that  the  word 
"corn"  in  Europe  means  any  kind  of  grain.  In  the  United  States 
the  word  applies  only  to  Indian  corn  or  maize. 

Races  of  Com. — Corn  is  divided  into  at  least  six  divisions  or 
races.  These  are  (1)  dent,  (2)  flint,  (3)  sweet,  (4)  pop,  (5)  soft, 
and  (6)  pod.  Dent  corn  is  so  called  because  of  a  depression  or 
dent  in  the  free  end  of  the  kernel.  The  kernels  are  usually  flat- 
tened, more  or  less  wedge-shaped  and  much  longer  than  wide. 
This  is  the  most  common  variety  and  it  constitutes  the  bulk  of 
the  American  field  crop.  Flint  corn  is  very  hard  and  compact. 
It  does  not  shrink  or  dent  and  the  kernels  are  smoother  and 
more  rounded  than  dent  corn.  The  ears  are  usually  much 
longer  in  proportion  to  diameter  than  dent  forn.  Sweet  corn  may 
be  recognized  by  its  wrinkled,  horny  grain.  The  ears  are  small 
and  mature  early.  The  ears  of  pop-corn  are  very  small  and  the 
grains  quite  round  in  one  type  and  elongated  and  pointed  at  the 
tip  in  the  type  known  as  rice  pop-corn.  The  grains  are  very  dense. 
This  explains  the  swelling  or  popping  of  the  grains  when  heated. 

60 


Soft  and  pod  corn  are  little  known  in  this  section  of  the  country. 
Soft  corn  is  the  kind  originally  cultivated  by  the  Indians.  The 
pod  corn  is  somewhat  of  a  curiosity.  Each  kernel  is  wrapped  in  a 
small  shuck. 

Varieties. — There  are  many  varieties  of  field  or  dent  corn. 
The  following  have  been  classed  by  the  Maryland  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  as  important  varieties  for  Maryland  con- 
ditions: Boone  County  White,  Brandenburg,  Cocke's  Prolific, 
Excelsior,  Funk's  Yellow  Dent,  Giant  Beauty,  Hickory  King, 
Hildreth,  Iowa  Silvermine,  Leaming,  Munikhuyden,  Reid's 
Yellow  Dent,  Roslyn  Dent,  Round  Top,  Rayston,  Skipper, 
Thomas,  U.  S.  182,  Western  Maryland  White-cap.  Hickory 
King  and  Cocke's  Prolific  are  recommended  for  silage. 

The  Mixing  of  Varieties. — The  pollen  grains  borne  by  the  tas- 
sel fall  on  the  ends  of  the  silks  -and  through  them  unite  with  the 
ovules  borne  by  the  cob.  The  union  of  these  parts  develops 
into  a  seed  or  a  kernel.  Pollen  grains  are  very  light  and  may  be 
carried  a  considerable  distance  by  the  wind.  As  the  pollen  of 
one  variety  or  race  unites  readily  with  the  ovules  of  another  the 
possibility  of  mixing  is  unlimited;  if  different  kinds  of  corn  are 
grown  in  the  same  field  or  on  the  same  farm,  mixing  does  not 
affect  the  yield  of  that  particular  crop,  but  seed  should  not  be  se- 
lected from  mixed  corn. 

Textbook  References. — ^Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  197- 
202;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  103-108;  Davis,  pp.  131-132. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  253,  298,  414, 
415,  537,  559,  and  617;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  Nos.  96,  120,  141,  165,  and  190. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  the  pupils  of  the  class  bring 
to  school  samples  of  as  many  races  of  corn  as  possible.  Compare 
them.  Note  the  points  of  sunilarity  and  dissimilarity.  (2)  Have 
the  pupils  bring  to  school  samples  of  as  many  of  the  varieties  of 
dent  corn  as  may  be  found  in  the  community.  Carefully  study 
the  varieties  to  be  able  to  recognize  them. 

Correlations. — Language:  Describe  an  ear  of  corn  of  each  of 
the  races  studied. 

Drawing:  Make  drawings  of  the  ears  of  corn  described  and  of 
individual  grains  of  each  ear. 


01 


LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:    Farm  Animals. 
Topic:  Hog  Houses. 

Location. — ^A  well-drained  site  should  be  selected  and  if  it  is 
sufficiently  elevated  to  give  the  hogs  a  climb  in  reaching  it,  so 
much  the  better.  The  house  should  stand  on  a  north  and  south 
line  so  that  both  sides  may  receive  direct  sunlight  during  a  part 
of  the  day.  If  convenient,  the  house  should  be  so  located  as  to 
occupy  the  south  side  of  a  hill. 

Principles  in  Construction. — There  are  four  important  things 
to  be  observed  in  hog  house  construction;  namely,  light,  ventila- 


FiG.  1.    General  Plan  of  a  Large  Hog  House. 


tion,  warmth,  and  cleanliness.  Light  is  provided  by  placing  the 
house  along  a  north  and  south  line  and  by  putting  in  suitable 
doors  and  windows.  Doors,  windows  and  roof  ventilation  fur- 
nish a  proper  interchange  of  air.  Remember  that  hogs  need  good 
ventilation  as  well  as  people.  A  well  constructed  house  with 
good  floor  and  bedding  provides  sufficient  warmth.  Let  it  be 
remembered  that  the  hog  has  little  natural  protection  from  cold, 
hence  the  necessity  for  comfortable  quarters.     Cement  makes 

62 


the  most  satisfactory  floor.  A  good  floor  makes  it  much  easier 
to  keep  the  house  clean.  The  arrangement  of  the  house  should 
be  such  that  the  beds  and  feed  floors  are  well  separated. 

Kinds  of  Houses. — There  are  two  general  classes  of  houses, 
large  and  individual.  The  large  house  (fig.  1)  has  individual 
pens  and  is  intended  for  quite  a  number  of  hogs.  The  large 
house  is  usually  permanent,  that  is,  so  constructed  that  it  can- 
not be  moved  from  place  to  place.  The  advantages  of  the  large 
house  are:  it  is  more  economical  for  a  large  number  of  hogs;  it 
is  more  convenient  for  feeding  and  it  affords  provisions  for  saving 


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Fig.  2.    Ground  Plan  of  House  in  Figure  1. 


manure.  If  the  house  is  to  be  quite  large  it  is  generally  considered 
advisable  to  arrange  the  pens  in  two  rows  (fig.  2)  with  an  alley 
between.  The  alley  should  be  4  to  6  feet  wide,  unless  it  is  desir- 
able to  have  space  for  the  passing  of  a  wagon.  In  that  event  the 
alley  should  be  8  to  10  feet  wide. 

The  individual  house  (fig.  3)  as  the  name  suggests,  is  intended 
for  one  hog  or  for  a  sow  and  her  brood.  One  advantage  of  the 
individual  or  portable  house  is  that  it  can  be  moved  from  place 
to  place  and  thus  made  accessible  to  pastures.  There  are  two 
general  styles  of  individual  houses;  namely,  the  box-shaped  with 

63 


four  upright  walls  and  the  A-shaped.  The  dimensions  of  the 
individual  house  should  be  6  feet  by  10  feet  or  8  feet  by  8  feet. 
Wooden  floors  are  good  but  not  necessary.  Whether  wood  or 
earth  floors  are  used  they  should  be  higher  than  the  outside  level 
of  the  ground  to  insure  dryness.  All  houses  should  be  sufficiently 
high  to  permit  the  attendant  to  move  about  them  with  com- 
parative freedom.  By  placing  fenders  on  the  walls  of  the  individ- 
ual house  it  may  be,  used  as  a  farrcwing  pen. 


Fig.  3.    A  Good  Type  of  Siviall  Hog  House. 


Farrowing  Pens. — If  more  than  one  sow  is  kept  on  the  farm 
it  may  be  desirable  to  have  a  regular  farrowing  pen.  This  pen 
should  be  provided  with  fenders  on  each  wall.  The  fender  may 
be  made  of  a  2  by  6  scantling  and  fastened  to  the  wall  of  the  pen 
some  6  inches  above  the  floor.  The  object  of  the  fender  is  to 
prevent  the  sow  overlying  j'oung  pigs.     As  previously  suggested, 

64 


the  individual  house  may  be  used  for  farrowing  purposes.  The 
A-shaped  house  needs  no  fenders". 

Troughs. — There  are  several  kinds  of  troughs;  namely,  the  V- 
shaped,  made  of  boards,  the  hewed-out  log,  and  the  flat,  shallow 
board  trough.  The  first  mentioned  is  much  used  but  not  very 
substantial.  The  log  trough  is  quite  substantial  and  makes  a 
good  trough.  The  flat,  shallow  trough  is  adapted  to  the  use  of 
young  pigs.  Cement  and  iron  troughs  ai-e  heavy  and  expensive 
and  not  recommended  except  when  they  are  to  occupy  a  per- 
manent location. 

Teachers*  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  438  and  566; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  Nos.  150 
and  185. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  If  there  is  a  modern  hog  house  in 
the  community  the  teacher  should  take  the  class  to  it  to  study 
its  construction.  Take  notes  on  the  purpose,  the  plan,  and  the 
accessories.  It  is  well  to  make  sketches  of  the  plan  and  general 
arrangement.  (2)  Require  each  member  of  the  class  to  submit 
a  drawing  of  an  individual  hog  house  or  farrowing  pen.  Have 
each  plan  accompanied  by  a  bill  of  lumber  for  the  construction 
of  the  house. 

Correlations. — Language  and  Drawing:  Material  for  these  are 
suggested  in  the  practical  exercises. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  cost  of  materials  in  the  bills  of  luraber 
submitted  by  the  pupils  in  exercise  2. 

LESSON   SEVEN. 

Subject:  The  Apple  Orchard. 
Topic :  Selecting  and  Securing  Trees. 

Importance. — In  starting  an  orchard  of  any  kind  it  is  of  vital 
importance  to  commence  with  good  trees.  The  question  then 
naturally  arises,  what  is  a  good  tree? 

A  Good  Nursery  Tree. — (1)  The  tree  should  be  free  from  in- 
sects and  disease.  San  Jose  scale,  wooly  aphis  and  crown  gall 
are  the  chief  pests  to  be  guarded  against. 

(2)  The  tree  should  be  of  good  size  for  its  age.  Frequently 
two-year  old  trees  that  are  no  larger  than  one-year  old  trees  are 
sold  for  one-year  old  trees.  Such  trees  are  lacking  in  vigor  or 
have  been  stunted  in  their  growth. 

65 


Fig.  4.    One-Year  Old  Nursery  Trees. 


Fig.  5.    Two-Year  Old  Nursery  Trees. 


66 


(3)  The  tree  should  be  well  preserved.  Sometimes  trees  are 
poorly  packed  or  delayed  in  transit;  or  if  ordered  in  the  spring 
they  may  have  suffered  while  in  storage  during  the  winter.  This 
is  indicated  by  shriveled  twigs  and  blackened  bark  on  trunk 
and  roots. 

(4)  If  the  tree  is  two  years  old  it  should  have  a  well  balanced 
head,  formed  at  the  desired  height,  if  it  is  only  one  year  old  it 
should  be  a  straight  whip. 

(5)  Both  one  and  two-year  old  trees  (figs.  4  and  5)  are  used  for 
planting  out  apple  orchards.  Anything  older  than  two  years  is 
undesirable.  The  one-year  old  budded  tree,  from  4  to  5  feet  high 
proves  most  satisfactory  under  Maryland  conditions.  The  one- 
year  old  tree  costs  less,  can  be  more  easily  handled,  suffers  less  in 
transplanting  and  can  be  headed  at  the  desired  height.  The  only 
argument  ever  advanced  in  favor  of  the  two-year  old  tree  is  that 
it  comes  into  bearing  earlier.  This  statement  has  no  foundation 
in  fact. 

What  the  Grower  Should  Know  About  a  Variety. — The  selec- 
tion of  varieties  is  one  of  the  most  important  points  the  orchardist 
has  to  pass  upon.  Many  orchards  have  proved  failures  because 
the  wrong  varieties  were  planted.  The  following  facts  should 
be  known: 

1.  Age  at  which  the  tree  c5mes  into  bearing. 

2.  Productive  age  of  tree. 

3.  Hardiness — ability  to  withstand  climate,  insects  and  disease. 

4.  Season  of  ripening.     Summer,  fall  or  winter  variety. 

5.  Size  of  tree — large  or  small  in  stature.     Spreading  or  up- 
right grower  like  Smokehouse  or  Yellow  Transparent. 

6.  Color  of  fruit — red,  yellow  or  green. 

7.  Keeping  qualities  of  fruit. 

8.  Shipping  qualities  of  fruit. 

9.  Quality  of  fruit — ^texture,  flavor,  sweet,  sub-acid  or  acid. 
10.  Annual  or  biennial  bearer. 

This  information  concerning  a  variety  may  be  obtained  by 
writing  to  the  authorities  at  the  State  Agricultural  College  and 
Experiment  Station.  Before  planting  out  a  variety  in  any 
locality  it  is  best  to  make  some  investigations  in  the  locality  itself. 
If  the  variety  is  grown  in  that  locality  it  can  easily  be  determined 
whether  it  is  adapted  to  that  section  and  whether  or  not  it  is 
profitable.  If  it  is  not  grown  find  out  why.  There  is  generally 
some  good  reason  for  this. 

67 


The  following  rules  are  given  })y  Waugh  for  selecting  vai'ieties: 
For  Commercial  Orchards: 

1.  Select  a  very  few  varieties. 

2.  Choose  standard  market  sorts. 

3.  Give  only  second  thought  to  quality. 

4.  Prefer  late  keeping  winter  varieties. 

5.  Choose  only  hardy,  healthy  sorts. 

6.  Plant  no  oddities  or  novelties. 
For  Home  Orchards : 

1.  Select  many  varieties. 

2.  Choose  family  favorites. 

3.  Put  quality  first. 

4.  Provide  a  succession  of  varieties. 

5.  Stick  to  some  good  varieties  in  spite  of  defects  of  tree. 

6.  Test  occasional  promising  varieties  and  grow  some  sweet 
apples,  crabs,  etc. 

In  general,  the  above  rules  are  good  advice.  Nevertheless, 
to  begin  with,  the  kind  of  market  the  commercial  orchard  sells 
to  should  determine  the  number  of  varieties  to  be  planted.  If 
the  grower  is  catering  to  a  special  or  retail  market  he  may  be 
justified  in  setting  out  as  many  as  a  dozen  varieties  for  then  he 
may  want  a  succession  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  he  is  growing  for  the  general  or  wholesale  market 
where  he  is  selling  through  a  commission  man  or  a  buyer  at  the 
orchard  it  is  more  economical  and  easier  to  handle  and  to  sell 
100  barrels  of  one  variety  than  ten  barrels  each  of  ten  varieties. 
The  tendency  among  experienced  growers  is  towards  setting 
few  varieties.  The  more  enthusiastic  and  the  less  experienced 
a  grower  is  the  more  varieties  he  is  likely  to  have.  If  it  were  not 
for  the  problem  of  interpollination,  one  variety  would  be  the 
ideal  number  for  the  commercial  orchard  selling  to  the  general 
market. 

In  selecting  varieties  the  orchardist  should  note  the  tendencies 
of  the  times  and  look  into  the  future.  It  is  not  only  to  know  what 
the  conditions  are  now  but  also,  and  more  important,  what  they 
are  likely  to  be  six  or  ten  years  hence,  when  his  trees  come  into 
bearing. 

How  to  Deal  with  Nurser3mien. — Having  decided  upon  the 
varieties  the  next  step  in  order  is  the  purchase  of  the  stock.  Write 
to  several  of  the  nearest  nurseries  stating  varieties  and  number 

68 


of  trees  of  each,  age  and  grade  of  tree  desired.  Reserve  the  right 
to  reject  all  trees  that  do  not  come  up  to  the  specifications.  It 
should  be  definitely  stated  that  diseased,  insect-infested  or  in- 
jured trees  will  not  be  accepted.  The  bill  of  sale  and  all  corre- 
spondence relating  to  the  transaction  should  be  filed  away  for  future 
reference.  If  a  large  number  of  trees  are  to  be  bought  it  is  best 
to  visit  the  nursery  and  make  the  selection  there. 

If  a  large  number  of  varieties  is  desired  it  is  likely  that  one  nur- 
sery cannot  supply  them  all.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  better 
to  divide  the  order  rather  than  accept  substitutes.  It  is  always 
best  to  get  the  order  in  early  for  late  in  the  season  varieties  are 
sold  out  and  only  the  poorer  grades  of  trees  remain.  At  a  nur- 
sery he  who  comes  first  is  not  only  first  served  but  best  served. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  188  and  189;  Burkett, 
Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  83-87;  Nolan,  pp.  57-60. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  113,  491,  and 
492;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  Nos. 
92,  130,  144,  and  178. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  The  teacher  should  take  the  class 
to  a  farm  where  trees  are  being  set.  Require  the  pupils  to  take 
notes  covering  the  following  points:  (a)  The  age  and  size  of 
trees,  (b)  condition  of  trees,  (c)  varieties  being  set.  (2)  If  not 
convenient  to  visit  an  orchard,  have  the  pupils  report  on  the 
foregoing  facts  with  reference  to  trees  being  planted  at  their 
homes.  Discuss  these  notes  and  reports  in  the  light  of  the  fore- 
going lesson. 

Correlations. — Language  work  is  provided  in  the  practical 
exercises. 

Draw  a  plan  of  the  home  orchard  showing  the  locations  of 
the  different  kinds  of  fruits. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  The  Apple  Orchard. 

Topics:    (1)  Selecting  the  Site,  (2)  Setting  Trees. 

Selecting  the  Orchard  Site. — Soil:  The  apple  will  thrive  on  a 
variety  of  soils.  Practically  all  the  well-drained  soils  that  pro- 
duce good  crops  of  corn  or  potatoes  will  produce  good  apples. 
Still  it  has  some  preferences  and  a  deep  ricli  sandy  or  gravelly 

69 


loam  with  a  clay  subsoil  is  considered  best,  and  in  some  cases, 
even  the  special  requirements  of  a  few  individual  varieties  have 
been  worked  out. 

Drainage:  Apple  soils  must  be  well  drained  in  reference  to 
both  air  and  water.  For  this  reason  orchards  are  generally  found 
on  slopes  or  elevations  somewhat  higher  than  the  surrounding 
country.  Steep  slopes,  however,  are  undesirable  as  upon  them 
the  various  orchard  operations  are  carried  out  with  difficulty 
and  erosion  is  likely  to  be  annoying.  Pockets  or  depressions  even 
on  high  elevations  should  be  avoided  for  in  them  the  cold  air  will 
collect  and  cause  late  spring  or  early  fall  frosts. 

Exposure  or  slope :  Apples  are  successfully  grown  on  all  the  four 
slopes.  In  a  frosty  region  a  northern  slope  is  the  safer,  but  on 
such  a  slope  there  is  less  sunshine  and  so  the  fruit  will  not  have 
so  much  color  as  those  growing  on  a  southerly  slope.  On  the 
other  hand,  on  a  southern  slope  the  blossoms  come  out  earlier  in 
the  spring  and  there  is  more  danger  of  getting  caught  by  late 
spring  frosts. 

Preparing  the  Land. — The  more  thoroughly  the  land  is  pre- 
pared in  advance  of  the  planting  the  better  it  will  be  for  the 
trees.  To  begin  with,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  and  deeply 
plowed.  A  subsoil  plow  can  usually  be  used  to  good  advantage. 
The  plowing  should  be  followed  by  the  disk  or  other  harrow  until 
the  land  is  thoroughly  worked  into  a  fine  tilth. 

Laying  Out  the  Orchard. — An  orchard  may  be  laid  out  a  number 
of  ways.  The  simplest  way  is  to  set  stakes  all  around  the  field 
at  the  distance  the  trees  are  to  stand  apart.  If  the  field  is  large 
or  hilly  it  may  be  necessary  to  set  tall  stakes  both  ways  across  the 
middles  also.  A  good  plowman  with  a  steady  team  can  then  run 
straight  furrows  between  the  stakes.  The  trees  are  planted  where 
the  furrows  cross.  By  sighting  along  the  rows  in  both  directions 
aided  by  a  few  extra  stakes  when  the  trees  are  being  set  straight 
rows  can  easily  be  obtained. 

Distance  Apart  to  Plant  the  Trees. — Apple  trees  are  planted 
from  30  to  40  feet  apart  depending  upon  the  variety  of  trees,  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  the  system  of  pruning  to  be  followed.  The 
tendency  is  towards  closer  planting  and  more  thorough  and 
systematic  pruning.  If  fillers  are  used  the  permanent  trees  should 
be  placed  40  feet  apart. 


70 


Heeling-in  the  Trees. — When  the  trees  arrive  from  the  nursery 
they  should  be  planted  or  "heeled  in/'  It  is  not  safe  to  let  them 
stand  in  the  original  package  very  long.  This  should  be  "heeled 
in"  at  some  point  convenient  to  the  orchard  site  or  on  the  site 
itself.  It  consists  in  digging  or  plowing  a  trench  in  which  the 
trees  are  placed  and  inclined  preferably  towards  the  south.  The 
bundles  should  be  loosened  and  the  soil  worked  thoroughly  in 
among  the  roots.  Then  cover  the  roots  and  part  of  the  trunks 
and  trample  well.  If  the  earth  is  rather  dry  and  the  trees  are  to 
remain  for  some  time  it  is  best  to  water  them.  If  the  trees  should 
arrive  in  a  shriveled  condition  from  drying  out  in  transit  it  is  best 
to  immerse  them  in  a  stream  or  pond  for  24  hours.  Under  this 
treatment  they  often  recover  completely. 

Planting  the  Trees. — In  well  prepared  mellow  soil  tree  planting 
is  easy.  The  hole  need  not  be  any  larger  than  to  actually  hold  the 
roots  without  cramping  and  permitting  the  tree  to  sit  a  few  inches 
deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  nursery.  Before  planting  cut  off  all 
injured  roots  making  a  smooth  cut  and  cut  all  other  roots  back 
to  5  or  6  inches  in  length.  This  may  be  done  before  the  trees 
are  distributed  for  planting.  Hold  the  tree  in  position  and  sift 
some  of  the  finest  surface  soil  over  the  roots  and  while  so  doing 
joggle  the  tree  gently  up  and  down  so  that  the  soil  will  settle  well 
in  among  the  roots  and  fill  up  all  air  spaces.  After  the  roots  are 
well  covered  trample  the  dirt  down  firmly  with  the  feet;  then 
fJl  in  the  rest  of  the  hole,  trample  down  well  and  throw  a  few 
shovelfuls  of  loose  dirt  over  the  surface  to  serve  as  a  mulch.  If 
the  ground  has  not  been  thoroughly  prepared  a  hole  at  least  2 
feet  in  diameter  and  a  foot  and  a  half  deep  should  be  dug  for 
each  tree.  Due  precaution  should  be  taken  at  all  times  against 
exposing  the  roots  incessantly  to  wind  and  sun.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  puddle  the  roots  before  distributing  them  for  planting.  In 
the  hot  spring  days  it  is  best  to  haul  the  trees  in  a  barrel  of  water 
and  remove  them  from  the  barrel  as  they  are  planted. 

Pruning  the  Trees. — Either  before  or  shortly  after  planting 
the  trees  should  be  pruned.  In  commercial  orchards  apple  trees 
are  headed  at  18  to  74  inches  above  the  ground.  If  the  trees  are 
one  year  old  whips  the  pruning  is  a  simple  matter.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  to  cut  them  off  at  the  desired  height  above  the  ground. 
In  the  case  of  branched  trees  (fig  6)  select  from  three  to  five  of 
the  best  placed  branches  to  form  the  frame  work  of  the  top.     See 

71 


that  these  are  evenly  distril)uted  around  the  trunk  so  as  to  make 
the  tree  as  well  balanced  as  possible.  Avoid  those  branches 
that  tend  to  form  sharp  angles  with  the  trunk  as  they  are  likely 


Fig.  6.    Young  Tree  Properly  Pruned  After  One  Year's  Growth. 


to  split  off  later  when  laden  with  fruit.  After  removing  the 
branches  not  desired,  shorten  back  the  remaining  branches  to 
about  6  inches. 

72 


Textbook  References.— Davis,  pp.  188,  189,  190,  194,  and  195; 
Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  83-86;  Nolan,  pp.  57-58. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  113,  491,  and 
492;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  Nos. 
92,  130,  144,  and  178. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  the  members  of  the  class  report 
on  the  following  facts  concerning  the  home  orchards  previously- 
set  or  now  being  set:  (a)  The  kind  of  soil,  (b)  the  exposure  or 
slope,  (c)  the  distance  between  trees.  (2)  If  possible  the  teacher 
should  go  with  the  class  to  a  good  orchard  to  take  notes  covering 
the  foregoing  points. 

Correlations. — Language  work  is  provided  in  the  practical 
exercises. 

Drawing:  Sketch  a  one-year  and  a  two-year  tree  properly 
pruned. 

Arithmetic:  Have  pupils  secure  accurate  reports  as  to  the  in- 
comes from  the  home  orchards  for  the  year,  the  number  of  acres 
devoted  to  orchards  and  the  number  of  trees.  From  these 
facts  develop  problems  adapted  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils. 

LESSON   NINE. 

Subject:  Buildings  for  Farm  Animals. 
Topics :  Purposes  and  Locations  of  Stables. 

Purposes  of  Stables. — (1)  To  afford  animals  protection  against 
the  weather;  (2)  to  protect  them  against  injuries  from  other  ani- 
mals and  prevent  their  inflicting,  injuries  upon  other  animals  and 
upon  persons;  (3)  to  prevent  loss  by  straying;  theft,  or  by  over- 
eating; (4)  to  make  economic  feeding  possible.  It  is  much  easier 
to  feed  animals  economical^  and  intelligently  when  confined  in 
proper  stalls  with  suitable  mangers  than  it  is  to  feed  in  the  open. 
(5)  To  make  possible  the  production  of  animals  which  are  gentle, 
quiet  and  easily  handled;  (6)  to  provide  a  convenient  method  of 
saving  and  caring  for  the  manures;  (7)  to  allow  opportunities  for 
the  study  of  animals  in  order  that  they  may  be  managed  so  as 
to  produce  the  best  results. 

Location  of  Stables. — Stables,  pens  or  houses  for  farm  animals 
should  be  so  located  with  reference  to  the  farm  dwelling  as  not 
to  produce  unsightly  appearances  or  objectionable  odors,  and  yet 

73 


to  be  convenient  as  regards  distance.  Too,  they  should  be  con- 
venient to  graneries,  hay  and  straw  barracks,  silos,  feed  lots,  and 
pastures.  Such  buildings  should  have  good  natural  drainage, 
good  light  and  be  so  placed  as  to  be  protected  from  cold  winds  and 
storms.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  drainage  from 
farm  buildings  does  not  flow  in  the  direction  of  wells  or  springs 
providing  drinking  water  for  the  household.  The  purposes  for 
which  stables  are  to  be  used  help  to  determine  the  proper  site  for 
their  location. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  each  member  of  the  class  prepare 
a  complete  description  of  a  stable,  pen  or  house  used  at  home  as 
a  shelter  for  any  one  class  of  farm  animals.  State  the  purpose 
of  the  building  and  give  reasons  for  its  being  located  where  it  is. 

Correlations. — Language :  The  description  called  for  in  the  prac- 
tical exercises  provides  written  work. 

LESSON  TEN. 

Subject:  Buildings  for  Farm  Animals. 
Topics:  (1)  Design  and  Arrangement,  (2)  Ventilation, 
(3)  Water  Supply  and  Drainage. 

Design  and  Arrangement. — Before  constructing  or  altering  a 
stable  or  other  building  for  farm  animals  a  careful  study  should 
be  made  of  similar  structures  in  the  immediate  section  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  their  good  and  poor  features.  While 
making  this  study  the  purposes  of  the  building  to  be  constructed 
or  altered  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind.  It  is  impossible  to 
lay  down  a  fixed  rule  to  govern  the  designing  of  such  buildings 
as  each  instance  presents  its  own  problems.  The  purpose  of  the 
building  and  the  money  available  determine  the  design,  arrange- 
ment and  fittings.  Simplicity,  plain  surfaces,  rounded  corners 
and  fittings  of  recognized  merit  should  prevail. 

Stables  should  be  as  free  as  possible  of  posts,  as  they  interfere 
with  convenient  arrangement  of  stalls  and  passage  ways.  In 
making  a  plan  the  following  phases  should  be  observed :  Consider 
carefully  the  comfort  of  the  animals  to  be  housed  and  the  attend- 
ants who  care  for  them.  Provide  plenty  of  windows  for  thoroughly 
lighting  the  whole  interior.     Arrange  the  stalls  and  fixtures  so 

74 


that  they  may  be  cleaned  conveniently  and  the  necessary  routine 
operations  may  be  carried  on  with  undue  labor  and  expense. 

Ventilation. — All  public  buildings  designed  to  house  a  large  num- 
ber of  people*  are  provided  with  some  method  to  supply  fresh  air 
and  to  remove  foul  air.  The  health  of  the  occupants  of  these  build- 
ings demands  that  there  must  be  an  abundance  of  fresh  air.  It  is 
no  less  important  that  structures  designed  to  house  animals  should 
be  equipped  with  some  form  of  ventilating  system  in  order  that 
animals  be  abundantly  supplied  with  fresh  air  at  all  times.  The 
next  important  matter  to  consider  is  that  whatever  method  is 
employed  in  providing  animals  fresh  air  and  removing  foul  air, 
draughts  upon  the  animals  should  be  avoided.  In  small  buildings 
the  proper  regulation  of  windows  and  doors  provides  ventilation, 
but  in  large  stables  or  dairy  barn  flues  should  be  provided  as  out- 
lets and  openings  in  the  side  walls-  as  inlets.  Windows  and  doors 
assist  in  the  ventilation  of  stables,  but  in  large  buildings  these  are 
not  sufficient. 

Water  Supply  and  Drainage. — ^All  farm  animals  thrive  better 
if  they  have  access  to  pure,  fresh  water  at  frequent  intervals.  Ani- 
mals which  are  compelled  to  drink  ice  water  during  the  winter 
months,  and  stale,  warm  water  during  the  summer  months  can- 
not thrive  as  those  which  are  supplied  with  fresh,  pure  water  from 
springs,  wells  or  streams.  Hogs  and  poultry  show  quickly  the 
effects  of  an  improper  water  supply.  Water  not  fit  for  human 
use  is  not  fit  for  animals.  Quantity  is  also  essential.  The  ideal 
condition  is  where  running  water  is  available  at  all  times  in 
pasture,  lot  or  stall. 

Drains  in  stables  and  yards  immediately  surrounding  them 
should  be  well  constructed  of  non-porous  material  and  should 
have  their  outlets  at  the  manure  pits  or  at  some  point  where 
the  drain  waste  can  be  used  for  fertilizing  purposes.  Neither 
drainage  nor  drain  pipes  should  be  placed  near  enough  to  wells, 
springs  or  water  supphes  to  cause  contamination  of  them. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  each  pupil  make  a  ground  plan 
of  the  building  described  in  the  previous  lesson.  Accompany 
with  a  statement  with  reference  to  the  manner  of  lighting  and 
ventilating  the  building. 

Correlations. — Language  and  Drawing:  Material  for  both  of 
these  exercises  are  provided  for  in  the  practical  exercise. 

76 


LESSON  ELEVEN. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Crops. — Continue  husking  and  hauling  corn;  haul  in  fodder 
and  stack  it  convenient  for  feeding  as  long  fodder  or  for  shred- 
dings.  The  latter  is  preferable.  Although  long  fodder  may  be 
stacked  in  the  open,  shredded  fodder  should  be  stored.  It  is  not 
too  late  to  sow  rye.     Store  root  crops  in  cellars  or  kilns. 

Soils. — Continue  hauling  out  manure  and  spreading  it  on  soil 
from  which  it  may  not  be  washed  away.  Clean  out  old  ditches 
and  lay  out  new  ones.  If  other  farm  work  is  not  too  pressing  be- 
gin making  new  ditches  where  necessary.  The  weather  conditions 
are  too  severe  in  midwinter  and  other  farm  work  is  too  pressing 
in  the  spring.     Keep  the  plows  going,  especially  on  sod  land. 

Horticulture. — If  a  new  orchard  is  to  be  set,  select  a  site  and 
prepare  the  soil  for  planting.  Select  the  fruit  trees  desired  and 
get  ready  to  plant  this  month.  Secure  and  set  out  fruit  trees 
that  are  to  take  the  place  of  dead  or  unprofitable  trees. 

Set  out  small  fruits  such  as  raspberries,  blackberries,  currants, 
gooseberries  and  grapes.  Mend  trellises  and  prepare  trellises 
for  older  plants.  Look  after  celery,  cabbage  and  lettuce  plants. 
See  that  the  first  two  are  properly  sheltered  and  the  last  are  set 
in  cold  frames. 

Farm  Animals. — Give  laying  pullets  careful  attention  so  as  to 
get  the  best  results.  Water,  feed  and  kind  treatment  are  neces- 
sary. Cull  out  the  unprofitable  hens  and  begin  the  work  of  fat- 
tening. Get  them  ready  for  the  hohday  market.  Increase  the 
feed  to  dairy  cows.  See  that  the  animals  are  sheltered  at  night 
and  on  stormy  days.  All  young  animals  should  be  provided 
with  shelter  on  cold,  stormy  nights.  Meat  hogs  should  be  fed 
heavil}^  that  they  may  .be  gotten  ready  for  butchering  early  in 
December.     Provide  all  animals  with  suitable  bedding. 

Improvements  and  Repairs. — Repair  fences,  roofs  of  houses, 
barns,  and  other  out  buildings.  Store  all  implements  and  ma- 
chinery. Grade  the  walks  and  driveways  about  the  farm.  Drain 
all  low  places  and  pools  and  fill  in  with  earth  or  cinders  to  provide 
against  sloppy  conditions  during  rainy  seasons.  During  the 
bright  open  weather  of  November  is  a  good  time  to  apply  a  coat 
of  paint  on  a  building  that  would  otherwise  suffer  from  weather- 

76 


ing  agencies  during  the  winter.  Provide  fuel  for  the  winter 
months. 

Flower  Gardening. — Continue  planting  bulbs  of  all  kinds.  This 
can  be  done  safely  as  long  as  the  ground  is  not  frozen.  The 
same  is  true  with  reference  to  planting  peonies.  Be  sure  that  the 
soil  is  well  drained.  Set  the  bulbs  so  that  the  eyes  will  be  3  inches 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  As  cold  weather  approaches  mulch 
the  ground  with  straw  or  coarse  manure.  Shade  trees  and  shrubs 
may  be  planted  now.  A  top  dressing  of  manure  2  or  3  inches 
deep  may  be  applied  to  shrubbery  borders. 

All  tender  roses,  shrubs  and  vines  should  be  given  protection 
by  wrapping  in  straw,  burlap  or  similar  material.  Mulch  all 
perennials  with  several  inches  of  leaves  or  coarse  manure.  To 
prevent  the  leaves  blowing  away  a  piece  of  wire  netting  may  be 
placed  on  top  of  them. 

Rake  up  the  leaves  on  the  lawn  and  mix  with  manure  and  soil 
to  make  a  compost. 


77 


DECEMBER. 
Introduction. 

This  is  the  fourth  of  the  series  of  publications  in  elementary 
vocational  agriculture  for  the  public  schools  of  Maryland.  The 
plan  of  the  preceding  months  is  followed. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:  Soil. 

Topic :  Crop  Rotation. 

Rotation  means  a  change  in  crops  from  year  to  year  in  regular 
order.  Several  different  crops  are  usually  included  in  a  rotation 
system.  Beginning  with  one  crop  the  series  is  followed  through  a 
period  of  years  until  the  several  crops  have  been  grown  in  order 
and  the  first  crop  in  the  series  has  been  reached  again. 

The  Purposes  of  Rotation. — The  real  purpose  of  rotation  is  to 
maintain  or  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  at  the  same  time 
growing  profitable  crops.  There  are  different  kinds  of  plant  food 
in  the  soil  and  if  any  one  of  these  is  used  up  the  soil  is  unable  to 
feed  plants  properly.  The  fact  that  different  crops  consume  the 
several  elements  of  plant  food  in  varying  proportions  makes  it 
possible  for  the  soil  to  be  deprived  of  most  of  the  available  sup- 
ply of  any  one  element  if  the  same  crop  is  grown  year  after  year. 
Hence  the  necessity  of  changing  the  crops  so  that  the  drain  on 
the  different  elements  of  plant  food  may  be  more  or  less  equalized. 

Other  Advantages  of  Rotation. — In  addition  to  keeping  up  the ' 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  producing  profitable  crops,  rotation  makes 
possible  a  number  of  advantages  such  as  getting  rid  of  weeds, 
adding  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil,  adding  nitrogen  and  keeping 
down  diseases  and  insect  pests.  A  cultivated  crop  keeps  down 
weeds,  hay  stubble  and  legumes  add  vegetable  matter  and  nitro- 
gen, and  as  each  plant  has  its  own  diseases  and  is  attacked  by 
particular  insects  a  change  each  year  tends  to  prevent  the  growth 
and  spread  of  these. 

78 


Suggestive  Rotation  Courses. — The  crops  that  enter  into  a 
rotation  system  are  determined  by  such  factors  as  money  in- 
come, food  for  man  and  animals,  restoring  fertility  to  the  soil, 
good  tillage,  and  keeping  down  weeds,  insects,  and  diseases. 
The  following  rotations  are  being  practiced  with  comparative 
success: 

1.      WESTERN  MARYLAND  MOUNTAIN  DISTRICT 

First  year.  Second  year.  Third  and  fourth  years. 

Corn.  Oats.  Clover  and  Timothy. 

Wheat,  buckwheat,  rye  and  potatoes  drop  into  the  rotation  at  irregular 
intervals. 


Third  and  fourth  years. 
Clover  and  Timothy. 
Fourth  and  fifth  years. 
Clover  and  Timothy. 


2.      NORTHERN  MARYLAND. 

(a)  First  year.  Second  year. 

Corn.  Wheat. 

(6)  First  year.  Second  and  Third  years. 

Corn.  Wheat. 

Spring  oats,  rye,  sweet  corn,  and  potatoes  drop  into  the  rotation  at 
irregular  intervals. 

3.      EASTERN  SHORE 

First  year.  Second  year. 

Tomatoes.  Wheat. 

Crimson  clover. 
Strawberries,  potatoes,  and  sweet  corn  drop  into  the  rotation  at  irregu- 
lar intervals. 

4.      SOUTHERN   MARYLAND. 


Third  and  fourth  years. 
Clover  and  Timothy. 


First  year.  Second  year. 

(a)  Tobacco.  Wheat. 

(b)  Corn.  Wheat. 

In  some  instances  wheat  is  substituted  by  oats, 
drop  into  the  rotation  at  irregular  intervals. 


Third  and  fourth  years. 
Clover  and  timothy. 
Clover  and  timothy. 
Potatoes  and  tomatoes 


The  following  rotation  is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  Mary- 
land whea  the  soil  is  run  down  and  in  need  of  humus  and  nitro- 
gen. It  is  suggested  that  the  cowpeas  or  soybeans  be  cut  for  hay. 
The  crimson  clover  should  be  plowed  down;  however,  it  may  be 
cut  for  hay. 

5.      GENERAL. 

First  year.  Second  year.  Third  year. 

(a)  Corn.  Wheat.  Cowpeas. 

Crimson  clover.  or 

Soybeans. 
Potatoes  or  tomatoes  may  be  substituted  in  whole  or  in  part  for  corn  or 
cowpeas. 

79 


Fourth  and  fifth  years. 
Clover  and  timothy. 


Textbook  References. — Nolan,  pp.  212-214;  Davis,  pp.  86-95; 
Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  33-38. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  each  member  of  the  class  pre- 
pare and  submit  a  statement  of  the  rotation  course  practiced  at 
home;  (2)  the  teacher  should  take  the  class  to  visit  a  farm  where 
a  good  rotation  is  practiced.  Have  the  pupils  take  notes  on  the 
plan  of  the  farm  and  the  crops  included  in  the  rotation  course. 

Correlations. — Language  work  is  provided  in  the  practical 
exercises. 

Drawing :  Require  each  pupil  to  make  an  outline  of  the  home 
farm  showing  the  location  of  each  crop  in  the  rotation  course. 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:  Dairying. 
Topic :  Making  Butter. 

Handling  Cream. — Cream  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature  be- 
low 60  degrees  Fahrenheit  until  the  time  arrives  for  it  to  be  rip- 
ened for  churning.  Every  home  should  be  provided  with  a 
thermometer  to  be  used  in  connection  with  the  handling  of  milk 
and  cream.  When  new  cream  is  to  be  mixed  with  old  cream  it 
should  be  cooled  first  to  a  temperature  equal  to  or  below  that  of 
the  old  cream.  After  adding  new  cream  thoroughly  mix  the  two 
lots.  Five  or  six  hours  before  churning  the  cream  should  be  rip- 
ened or  soured.  This  is  accomplished  by  raising  the  tempera- 
ture to  70°.  Ripening  or  souring  is  caused  by  lactic  acid  germs. 
In  the  spring,  summer  and  fall  months  there  is  usually  a  sufficient 
number  of  these  germs  present  to  produce  ripening.  During  the 
winter  months  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  use  what  is  termed  a 
''starter."  Sour  milk  of  good  flavor  or  curdled  skim  milk  may 
be  used  as  a  starter.  Not  more  than  one  part  of  the  starter  to  ten 
parts  of  cream  is  necessary  to  produce  quick  results  in  ripening. 

Churning. — When  the  cream  is  ready  to  be  churned  the  tem- 
perature should  be  lowered  to  60°  in  winter  and  54°  in  summer. 
There  are  a  number  of  things  to  indicate  that  churning  is  com- 
pleted. The  butter  gathers  in  granules  the  size  of  wheat  grains 
or  larger;  the  mass  floats  above  the  milk  and  the  sides  of  the 
churn  are  free  of  butter.     The  milk  has  a  frothy  appearance. 

Handling  Butter. — As  soon  as  the  churning  operation  has 
been  completed  the  butter  should  be  salted  and  worked.     Spread 

80 


the  butter  out  in  a  layer  two  inches  thick  and  sprinkle  salt  on  it. 
The  amount  of  salt  should  range  from  one  to  one  and  a  half 
ounces  a  pound,  depending  upon  the  taste  and  the  season.  The 
butter  should  then  be  worked  until  the  salt  is  evenly  distributed 
and  the  buttermilk  is  all  removed.  The  next  step  is  packing. 
The  butter  should  be  molded  in  pound  packages  and  wrapped  in 
parchment  paper  or  placed  in  jars  or  tubs.  In  the  latter  case 
the  vessel  should  be  covered  with  parchment  paper  or  cheese- 
cloth and  this  pasted  over  with  a  layer  of  salt  §  inch  thick. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  331,  332;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  297-301. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  413,  490,  541,  602; 
Maryland  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  181. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  a  report  of  each  member  of 
the  class  covering  practice  at  home  with  reference  to  the  follow- 
ing points:  (a)  How  cream  is  handled  until  it  is  ready  to  churn, 
(b)  the  kind  of  churn  used,  (c)  the  form  in  which  the  butter  is 
put  up  for  use  or  sale.  (2)  If  possible  the  teacher  should  go  with 
the  class  to  a  dairy  to  observe  and  take  notes  on  the  operations 
connected  with  churning. 

Correlations. — Written  work  is  provided  in  the  practical 
exercises. 

Drawiug:  Make  sketches  of  churns,  thermometers,  and  butter 
packages. 

Arithmetic:  During  this  month  secure  weekly  reports  on  the 
butter  made  at  the  homes  represented  in  the  school.  Develop 
problems  adapted  to  the  advancement  of  the  class  based  on  the 
reports  and  the  local  price  of  butter. 

LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  Horticulture. 

Topic :  Gardening  and  Small  Fruits. 

Cleaning  Up  the  Garden. — Gather  up  and  bum  all  old  boards, 
rubbish,  tomato  stalks,  and  vines  of  all  kinds.  Many  injurious 
insects  are  destroyed  in  this  way  and  the  rubbish  is  thus  gotten 
out  of  the  way  of  young  plants  in  the  spring.  If  manure  is  plen- 
tiful begin  now  to  spread  it  on  the  garden. 

Making  the  Compost  Heap. — For  hotbeds  and  delicate  plants 
it  is  necessary  to  have  well  rotted  manure.     This  may  be  had  by 

81 


preparing  a  compost  heap.  For  this  purpose  a  mixed  barnyard 
manure  is  good.  The  manure  should  be  put  in  a  pile,  slightly 
moistened  and  turned  occasionally  to  secure  thorough  mixing, 
uniform  heating,  and  to  prevent  burning.  The  heating  process 
not  only  thoroughly  rots  the  manure  but  kills  weed  seeds  and 
insects. 

Mulching  Strawberries. — During  this  month  a  thick  layer  of 
leaves,  pine  needles,  or  wheat  straw  should  be  spread  over  the 
ground  occupied  by  strawberry  plants.  The  advantages  of  the 
mulch  are  that  it  prevents  freezing  and  thawing  and  consequent 
heaving  of  plants,  it  helps  to  hold  moisture  in  the  soil  during  the 
fruiting  season,  it  keeps  down  weeds  and  keeps  the  berries  clean. 
Even  if  the  winters  are  not  sufficiently  severe  to  cause  damage  to 
plants  from  heaving  the  good  that  resuhs  in  the  way  of  clean  fruit 
justifies  the  expense  of  the  outlay  in  providing  the  mulch.  Gritty 
fruit  is  a  drug  on  the  market. 

Textbook  References. — Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  186, 187; 
Davis,  pp.  196,  197. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tions Bulletin  124,  160,  182;  Farmers'  Bulletin  192;  198,  p.  17; 
255,  647. 

Practical  Exercises.— Members  of  the  various  clubs  should  be- 
gin making  composfc  heaps.  The  tomato  club  members  should 
have  their  fathers  or  brothers  to  do  this  work  for  them. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Farm  Animals. 

Topics:  (1)  Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle;  (2)  Beef  Cattle. 

T3rpes  of  Cattle. — Most  of  the  improved  cattle  of  today  were 
developed  from  the  native  animals  of  Great  Britain  and  Western 
Europe.  There  are  three  general  classes  of  types;  namely,  beef 
breeds,  dual-purpose  or  general  purpose  breeds,  and  dairy  breeds. 
Each  class  has  been  developed  for  a  specific  purpose  and  the  form 
and  qualities  are  such  as  to  enable  the  individuals  of  the  class  to 
serve  that  purpose.  Beef  breeds  (fig.  1)  are  not  raised  for  milk 
but  for  meat.  Milk  producing  qualities  are  sacrificed  for  the 
meat  producing  qualities  which  are  deepness,  plumpness,  and 
compactness  of  body.  These  qualities  produce  a  blocky  appear- 
ance.    Dual-purpose  breeds,  as  the  name  suggests,  should  serve 

82 


two  purposes,  namely,  giving  milk  and  producing  meat.  How- 
ever, they  do  each  of  these  only  fairly  well.  The  body  is  not  so 
blocky  and  plump  as  in  the  case  of  the  beef  breeds,  neither  is  it 
so  angular  and  lean  as  with  the  true  dairy  breeds.  Among  the 
more  important  breeds  of  this  class  are  the  Devon,  the  Red  Polled, 
and  the  Polled  Durhams,  or  the  Bates  family  of  Shorthorns. 


M^  uu 


Fig.  1.    Beef  Type:  Front,  Rear  and  Side  Views. 

D  airy  breeds  (fig.  2)  have  been  developed  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing milk.  The  form  is  angular  and  lean,  inclined  to  a  wedge 
shape,  when  viewed  from  the  side,  front  or  top.  The  chief 
breeds  of  this  type  or  class  are  Jerseys,  Guernseys,  Holsteins 
or  Holstein-Friesians,  Ayrshires,  Dutch  Belted,  and  French 
Canadiaa. 


Fig.  2.    Dairy  Type:  Front,  Rear  ans  Side  Views. 


Beef  Breeds. — The  principal  beef  breeds  in  the  United  States 
are  the  Shorthorn,  the  Hereford,  the  Galloway,  and  the  Aberdeen- 
Angus.  The  Shorthorn  breed  seems  to  be  the  most  popular  Iq 
Maryland.  It  is  not  considered  a  good  policy  to  attempt  to  intro- 
duce a  new  breed  where  another  is  well  established  in  a  community 
or  section.     It  is  better  to  improve  the  established  breed  and  get 


the  benefit  of  the  reputation  that  the  community  or  section  en- 
joys as  a  result  of  the  improvement  than  it  is  to  attempt  to  intro- 
duce another  breed. 

Shorthorns  originated  in  England  and  were  first  brought  to 
America  in  1783.  This  is  the  most  popular  breed  in  America  and 
is  the  leading  breed  in  Maryland.  It  possesses  good  grazing,  ma- 
turing, and  fattening  qualities.  The  Shorthorn  is  the  largest 
beef  breed.  Males  weigh  1800  to  2200  pounds  and  females 
1300  to  1600  pounds.  The  color  may  be  red,  red  and  white, 
pure  white,  or  roan.  The  name  was  given  because  of  the  short 
horns;  however,  there  is  a  strain  of  this  breed  having  no  horns. 
(The  name  Durham  has  been  given  to  the  breed  in  some  localities.) 

Herefords  originated  in  Herefordshire,  England,  and  were 
introduced  into  this  country  by  Henry  Clay  in  1817.  This  is  an 
old,  well  established  breed  and  ranks  next  to  the  Shorthorn  in 
popularity.  The  animals  of  this  breed  are  good  grazers  and  re- 
spond readily  to  good  feed  and  careful  attention.  In  size  the 
Hereford  is  about  the  same  as  the  Shorthorn.  Males  weigh  from 
1800  to  2200  pounds  and  females  from  1200  to  1600  pounds.  The 
color  is  red  with  white  markings.  The  white  markings  consist  of  a 
white  face,  head,  neck,  shoulder  tops  and  are  sometimes  on  other 
parts  of  the  body.  The  red  color  varies  from  light  to  dark.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  English  shire  in  which  the  breed  was 
developed. 

Aberdeen  Angus  cattle  get  their  name  from,  and  originated 
largely  in,  the  county  of  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  While  the  members 
of  this  breed  are  good  rustlers  they  have  never  been  as  popular  as 
Shorthorns  and  Herefords.  This  breed  matures  early  and  fat- 
tens at  almost  any  age.  This  breed  has  no  horns  and  is  solid 
black  in  color.  In  size  they  are  smaller  than  Shorthorns.  Local 
names  for  this  breed  are  Polled  Angus  and  "Doddies." 

Galloway  cattle  are  also  from  Scotland.  Like  the  Angus  the 
Galloway  is  black  and  hornless.  The  marked  difference  in  ap- 
pearance is  due  to  the  Galloway^s  shaggy  or  curly  hair.  These 
animals  can  subsist  on  poor  pastures  and  scanty  feed,  but  they 
develop  too  slowly  on  good  feeding.  These  cattle  are  hardy  be- 
cause of  the  climate  from  which  they  came,  hence  are  adapted  to 
the  northwest.  In  size  they  are  smaller  than  the  other  beef 
breeds.  Males  weigh  1700  to  1900  pounds  and  cows  1000  to 
1300  pounds  each. 

84 


Textbook  References. — Buffuni  and  Deaver,  pp.  211-214; 
Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  270-275;  Davis,  pp.  257-260; 
Nolan,  pp.  81,  82. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  121;  Farmers'  Bulletin  612. 

Practical  Exercises. — Make  a  survey  of  the  beef  cattle  of  the 
community  using  the  table  that  follows  for  tabulating  the  facts 
ascertained.  The  members  of  the  class  should  prepare  tables  for 
their  use  in  collecting  facts  at  their  own  homes  and  at  their 
neighbors'  homes. 


Community  Beef  Cattle  Survey. 


Name  of  owner. 
Name  of  pupil. . 


BRBKD 

I»URE   BRED 

GRADES 

SCRUBS 

No. 

Value 

No. 

Value 

No. 

Value 

Shorthorn 

Hereford                 ....               .      . 

Aberdeen  Angus 

Galloway 

Note:  "Pure  bred"  means  thorough  bred;  "grade"  means  half  pure  or 
more;  "scrub"  means  less  than  half  pure. 

Correlations. — Language:  Prepare  tables  for  taking  the  beef 
cattle  survey. 

History:  Study  the  origin  and  development  of  the  breeds  of 
beef  cattle.     See  Farmers'  Bulletin  612. 

Arithmetic :  Use  the  facts  obtained  in  the  beef  breed  survey  to 
develop  problems  adapted  to  the  advancement  of  the  class. 


LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:  Farm  Accounts. 
Topic :  Inventory. 

Importance. — Every  farmer  should  ascertain  at  the  close  of  the 
year  just  where  he  stands  financially.  During  the  year  property 
has  been  bought,  sold,  and  exchanged,  aad  it  is  only  by  taking  an 
inveatory  that  the  farmer  is  able  to  determine  whether  he  is  worth 
more  or  less  than  he  was  a  year  ago.     He  should  know  whether 

85 


he  is  conducting  a  losing  or  paying  business  and  this  can  be  deter- 
mined only  by  comparing  each  year's  possessions  with  those  of 
the  year  before. 

An  Inventory  Defined. — It  is  a  statement  showing  what  the 
land,  buildings,  equipment,  live  stock,  and  produce  on  hand  are 
worth  at  the  time  the  inventory  is  taken.  Or,  stated  differently, 
it  is  a  list  of  credits  and  debits.  The  statement  should  be  item- 
ized to  show  what  each  item  of  property  or  indebtedness  is  worth. 
After  every  phase  of  the  inventory  has  been  tabulated  and  checked 
on  sheets  of  paper  it  should  be  transcribed  onto  the  farmer's  per- 
manent ledger. 

Taking  the  Inventory. — At  the  close  of  the  calendar  year  is  a 
suitable  time  for  taking  the  inventory.  All  matters  for  the  year 
are  being  adjusted  and  plans  are  being  made  for  the  new  year. 
The  farmers  usually  find  time  for  this  work  around  the  Christmas 
holiday  season. 

Care  should  be  taken  that  the  value  of  each  article  of  the  farm 
be  estimated  conservatively.  Due  allowance  should  be  made 
for  wear  and  tear  of  implements  and  buildings  and  the  depreciation 
in  value  of  animals  as  they  advance  in  years.  While  the  farmer 
should  take  into  account  the  increase  in  the  value  of  land  and 
other  property,  still  this  should  not  be  permitted  to  offset  losses 
at  other  points  due  to  accidents  or  bad  management.  After  the 
inventory  has  been  taken  it  should  be  compared  with  previous 
years  to  note  in  what  respects  there  have  been  failures  and  in  what 
respects  improvements. 

Sample  Inventory:  Farm  of 


PROPBKTY 

DECEMBER  31,  19 

No. 

Rate 

Valuation 

Real  Estate. 
Fann  (acres) 

160 
2 

$50.00 

$8,000 

2,400 
1,000 

Farm  buildings 

Barns  and  fences 

$11;400 

86 


Sample  Inventory:  Farm  of. 


PBOFBBTT 

DECEMBER 

31,  19.... 

No. 

Rate 

Valuation 

Live  Stock. 
Dairy  Cattle: 
Cows 

20 

1 
8 
4 

3 

10 

"  1 

1 
1 
1 
2 

100 

4 

6 

15 

50.00 

12.00 
25.00 

20.00 
18.00 

.75 
1.00 
3.00 
2.00 

1,000 

50 

96 

100 

60 

180 

40 

Bulls 

Calves 

Heifers 

Total  value  of  dairy  cattle 

Hogs: 
Brood  sows 

1,246 

Large  pigs  (fat) 

Male 

Total  value  of  hogs 

200 
450 
400 
200 

280 

Horses: 
Horse,  7  years  old  ...    ■ 

Team,  5  and  6  years  old 

Team,  8  and  9  years  old 

Colts,  1  and  2  years  old 

Total  value  of  horses 

75 

4 
18 
30 

1,250 

Poultry: 
Hens 

Roosters 

Turkeys 

Geese 

Total  value  of  poultry 

90 
45 
30 
35 
20 
60 
400 

127 

Total  value  of  Live  Stock 

2,903 

Machinery  and  Tools. 
Grain  binder 

Riding  plow 

Disk  harrow 

Mower 

Hay  rake 

Wagon 

(List  other  tools) 

Total  investment 

$680 

87 


Sample  Inventory:  Farm  of. 


Feed  and  Supplies. 

Corn,  bushels 

Oats,  bushels 

Potatoes,  bushels 

Hay,  timothy,  tons 

Hay,  mixed,  tons 

Silage,  tons 

Bran,  tons 

Seed  oats,  bushels 

Seed  potatoes,  bushels 

Total  value 

Bills  Receivable. 

J.  F.  Smith,  hay,  tons 

T.  A.  Brown,  oats,  bushels 
C.  J.  Jones,  corn,  bushels.. 

Total 

Cash. 

On  hand 

In  bank 

Total 

Bills  Payable 

Farm  mortgage 

Total  investment 

Bills  payable 

Net  worth 


DECEMBER  31,  19. 


No. 


600 

200 

50 

10 

5 

40 

1-2 

30 

40 


4 
50 
60 


Rate 


.60 

.45 

1.00 

15.00 

10.00 

4.00 

30.00 

.80 

1.25 


15.00 
.50 
.60 


Valuation 


360 
90 
50 

150 
50 

160 
15 
24 
50 


60 
25 
36 


949 


121 

75 
400 

475 

1,500 

16,528 
1,500 

15,028 

Study  carefully  the  foregoing  inventory  to  note  the  general 
form,  the  parts  or  divisions,  and  the  items.  This  inventory  is 
intended  to  be  suggestive.  The  first  division  includes  real  estate 
and  houses;  the  second,  live  stock;  the  third,  machinery  and  tools; 
the  fourth  includes  feed  and  supplies;  the  fifth,  bills  receivable; 
the  sixth,  the  amounts  of  money  on  hand  and  in  bank;  and  the 


seventh,  bills  payable.  The  items  on  any  farm  may  be  grouped 
under  one  of  these  heads. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  511. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  pupils  of  the  class  to 
prepare  blank  sheets  for  taking  farm  inventories.  (2)  The 
pupils  should  get  practice  in  taking  inventories  by  assisting  their 
fathers  with  the  work  this  month. 

Correlations. — Written  work  is  provided  in  making  sheets  for 
inventories. 

Arithmetic:  Use  the  inventories  to  develop  problems  in  profit 
and  loss. 

LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:  Roultry. 
Topic:  Diseases. 

There  are  a  number  of  diseases  common  to  poultry  during  the 
winter  season.  It  is  important  that  these  be  given  attention  at 
this  time. 

Roup. — Causes:  This  disease  is  caused  by  germs  which  are 
nearly  always  present.  Strong,  vigorous  birds  rarely  contract 
the  disease,  but  it  is  quite  common  among  those  in  a  weakened 
condition.  Some  of  the  things  that  produce  weakness  in  poultry 
and  make  them  subject  to  roup  are  improperly  ventilated,  cold, 
damp  houses,  and  improper  feeding.  Birds  infested  with  mites 
or  lice  soon  become  weak  and  subject  to  this  disease. 

Symptoms:  Swollen  eyes,  discharge  from  the  nose,  cheesy  de- 
posits in  various  parts  of  the  mouth  and  sneezing  are  the  leading 
symptoms.  The  discharges  are  usually  accompanied  by  a  very 
characteristic  odor. 

Treatment:  Remove  the  cause.  Get  rid  of  mites  if  they  are 
present,  change  the  house  to  make  it  dry  and  properly  ventilated 
and  give  the  birds  good  wholesome  food.  Every  sick  bird  should 
be  removed  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  If  the  bird  has  a  very  bad 
case  it  is  probably  best  to  kill  it  and  either  burn  or  bury  the  car- 
cass. If  the  bird  is  not  seriously  affected  it  should  be  placed  in 
dry,  comfortable  quarters  and  be  given  a  teaspoon  level  full 
of  Epsom  salts.  Bathe  the  affected  parts  with  a  mild  antiseptic 
solution,  such  as  2  per  cent  carbolic  acid. 

89 


Frozen  Combs. — This  trouble  should  be  prevented  by  keeping 
the  flock  in  a  well  constructed  house.  If  the  house  opens  toward 
the  south,  and  the  roosts  are  placed  in  the  rear  at  least  12  feet 
from  the  front,  there  should  not  be  much  trouble  with  combs 
freezing  unless  the  house  is  too  large  for  the  number  in  the  flock. 
When  a  cold  snap  is  expected  it  is  well  to  grease  the  combs  and 
wattles  with  vaseline  or  lard  to  prevent  freezing. 

Treatment:  Apply  vaseline  or  lard  to  frozen  parts.  When 
the  wattles  (gills)  become  enlarged  or  swollen  indicating  the 
presence  of  a  watery  fluid  they  should  be  carefully  lanced. 

Feather  Picking  and  Egg  Eating. — Some  flocks  develop  these^ 
habits  at  this  season  of  the  year.  Hens  kept  in  close  quarters  are 
more  apt  to  form  these  habits  than  those  which  have  a  free  range. 
Improper  feeding  is  usually  the  cause  of  both  troubles.  Although 
hens  may  be  improperly  fed  they  sometimes  contiaue  to  lay  eggs. 
In  doing  this  they  must  use  the  mineral  and  protein  substances 
stored  up  in  their  bodies.  The  hens  finally  get  to  craving  these 
substances  so  much  that  they  eat  eggs,  feathers,  or  anything 
available  which  contains  them. 

Treatment:  Supply  proper  food.  Furnish  sufficient  lime  in 
the  form  of  crushed  oyster  shells,  and  keep  before  the  hens  ground 
bone.  To  assist  in  breaking  the  egg-eating  habit  place  china 
eggs  about  the  pen  to  fool  the  hens,  provide  dark  nests  with 
plenty  of  nesting  material  and  gather  the  eggs  often. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  182,  287,  530. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Poultry  club  members  should  look 
after  the  health  of  their  flocks.  They  should  see  to  it  that  dis- 
eased fowls  are  separated  from  the  flock  and  treated  promptly. 
(2)  If  there  are  sick  fowls  at  the  homes  of  any  members  of  the 
class,  have  the  symptoms  reported.  Compare  the  symptoms 
with  those  found  in  Farmers*  Bulletin  530  under  the  several 
diseases. 

Correlations. — Arithmetic:  Secure  reports  as  to  the  number  of 
mature  fowls  the  community  has  lost  during  the  year  from  dis- 
ease.    Find  the  value  of  these  at  the  prevailing  prices. 


90 


LESSON  SEVEN. 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topic:  Marketing. 

Marketing  Poultry. — Poultry  is  marketed  alive  or  dressed. 
Unless  one  is  skilled  in  the  methods  of  killing,  picking,  and  pack- 
ing, dressed  poultry  is  likely  to  reach  the  consumer  in  bad  condi- 
tion. As  a  rule  it  is  better  for  the  Maryland  farmers  to  sell  their 
poultry  alive  than  to  try  to  dress  it. 

Shipping  Live  Poultry. — Crates:  Considerable  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  kinds  of  crates  in  which  the  birds  are  shipped. 
In  the  first  place,  strong,  light  coops  should  be  used.  The  lighter 
the  coop  the  less  the  cost  of  shipping.  The  coops  should  be  suffi- 
ciently large  to  be  comfortable  to  the  birds.  The  standard  poul- 
try crate  is  2  feet  wide  and  3  feet  long.  For  ducks,  small  fowls, 
and  young  chickens  the  height  is  12  inches;  for  geese,  old  roosters, 
and  large  fowls,  16  inches;  for  turkeys,  20  inches.  The  coop 
should  have  a  solid  bottom  and  slatted  or  spindled  sides  and  tops. 
Slats  should  not  be  more  than  1 J  inches  wide. 

Do  not  crowd  the  birds  in  the  coop  or  crate,  especially  in  the 
summer  months.  A  crate  of  poultry  makes  a  much  better  ap- 
pearance if  all  the  birds  in  it  are  the  same  color  and  near  the  same 
size.  These  facts  should  be  kept  in  mind  as  they  might  make 
quite  a  difference  in  the  selling  price. 

Killing  Poultry. — Birds  should  be  kept  without  feed  several 
hours  before  killing.  When  ready  to  kill  suspend  the  fowls  by 
the  legs  and,  with  a  knife,  cut  the  vein  at  the  back  of  the  throat. 
Then  run  the  point  of  the  knife  through  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
into  the  brain.  The  shock  to  the  brain  produces  unconsciousness 
and  relaxation  of  the  little  muscles  controlling  the  feathers,  caus- 
ing them  to  come  out  easily. 

Dry  Picking. — To  be  done  skillfully  dry  picking  requires  much 
practice.  Dry  picked  birds  are  preferred  in  most  markets.  Im- 
mediately after  killing  while  the  bird  is  still  bleeding  the  picker 
should  remove  the  feathers.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  tear 
the  skin.  As  soon  as  the  bird  is  picked  it  should  be  hung  up  in  a 
cool  place  until  all  the  animal  heat  has  left  the  body. 

Scalding. — As  soon  as  the  bird  is  through  bleeding  immerse  it 
three  or  four  times  in  water  slightly  below  the  boiling  point. 
Pick  it  clean,  exercising  care  not  to  tear  the  skin.     The  fowl 

91 


should  next  be  '^plumped"  by  dipping  it  in  nearly  boiling  water 
for  8  or  10  seconds  and  then  placing  it  in  cold  water  for  15  or  20 
minutes.  Be  careful  not  to  over  scald  as  this  causes  the  skin  to 
rub  off. 

Packing. — During  the  winter  months  dressed  birds  for  retail 
customers  may  be  packed  in  small  pasteboard  boxes  and  shipped 
by  parcel  post.  When  sold  in  large  numbers  they  should  be 
packed  in  barrels  using  alternate  layers  of  ice  and  birds. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  287. 

Practical  Exercises. — Secure  a  report  from  each  member  of  the 
class  covering  the  practice  at  home  with  reference  to  the  following 
points:  Methods  of  (a)  killing,  (b)  picking,  (c)  and  shipping 
dressed  poultry. 

Correlations. — Language  and  drawing:  Describe  and  make  a 
sketch  of  the  kinds  of  crates  ordinarily  used  in  shipping  live  poultry. 

Arithmetic :  Secure  reports  on  the  number  of  fowls  sold  by  the 
community  for  the  Christmas  market.  Find  the  value  based  on 
present  prices. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  Fakm  Animals — Hogs. 
Topics:  Dressing,  and  curing  meat. 

Dressing. — Killing:  This  is  done  by  inserting  a  knife  with  a 
narrow  straight  blade  8  inches  long  into  the  hog's  throat  just  in 
front  of  the  breastbone.  The  point  of  the  knife  should  be  directed 
toward  the  root  of  the  tail  in  line  with  the  backbone.  When  the 
knife  has  been  inserted  6  or  8  inches  it  should  be  given  a  quick 
turn  and  withdrawn. 

Scalding  and  scraping:  In  scalding  the  best  results  are  had  by 
using  water  at  a  temperature  of  185°  to  195°.  Boiling  water  placed 
in  a  cold  barrel  is  ordinarily  reduced  to  a  proper  temperature.  If 
the  water  is  too  cool  much  time  is  required  in  removing  the  hair 
and  if  it  is  too  hot  the  hair  is  likely  to  set.  A  shovelful  of  hard 
wood  ashes,  a  lump  of  lime,  a  handful  of  soap,  a  little  pine  tar  or 
tablespoonful  of  lye  helps  to  loosen  the  hair. 

The  hog  should  not  be  scalded  before  life  is  extinct  or  the  sur- 
face blood  will  be  cooked  giving  the  body  a  reddish  tinge.  While 
being  scalded  the  hog  should  be  kept  constantly  moving.  As 
soon  as  the  hair  and  scurf  slip  easily  from  the  surface  scalding  is 

92 


complete.  If  the  water  is  too  hot  scald  the  hind  end  first,  if  too 
cool  scald  the  front  end  in  order  to  get  a  good  scald  on  the  head, 
which  is  difficult  to  clean.  Clean  the  head  and  feet  first.  The 
hands  and  a  knife  are  all  that  are  necessary  to  remove  the  hair. 
After  the  hair  is  practically  all  removed  rinse  the  body  with  hot 
water  and  shave  the  remaining  hairs  with  a  sharp  knife.  Raise 
the  gambrel  cords,  insert  the  stick  and  hang  up  the  hog. 

Removing  the  entrails :  Split  the  hog  between  the  hind  legs, 
separating  the  bones  by  cutting  through  the  joint  with  a  knife. 
Next  run  the  knife  down  the  middle  line  of  the  body,  guiding  with 
the  right  hand  and  shielding  the  point  with  the  left  hand.  Split 
the  breastbone  with  a  knife  or  an  ax  and  continue  the  cut  on  down 
to  the  chin.  Remove  the  entrails.  Open  the  jaw  and  insert  a 
small  block  to  allow  free  drainage.  Wash  out  all  the  blood  with 
cold  water.  The  carcass  should  now  be  allowed  to  cool.  If  the 
weather  is  warm  split  the  backbone  to  hasten  cooling. 

Cutting:  Pork  may  be  cut  as  soon  as  thoroughly  cool.  The 
head  should  be  removed  back  of  the  ears,  split  the  backbone,  re- 
move the  shoulders  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  and  cut  off 
the  hams  two  inches  in  front  of  the  pelvic  bones.  Trim  the  bones 
to  smooth  rounded  pieces.  Remove  the  fat  from  all  parts,  take 
out  the  loin,  and  sparerib.     Cut  the  sides  into  two  or  three  pieces. 

Curing  Meat. — The  meat  should  be  allowed  to  cool  thoroughly 
before  it  is  salted.  If  the  weather  is  cool  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
six  hours  is  sufficient  time  to  permit  the  meat  to  cool  before  salting. 

A  clean  hardwood  barrel  is  a  suitable  vessel  in  which  to  cure 
meat.  To  insure  cleanliness  scald  the  barrel  thoroughly.  Salt, 
saltpeter,  and  sugar  or  molasses  are  used  most  commonly  as 
preservatives.  Too  much  saltpeter  should  not  be  used  as  it  is 
harmful  to  the  health.  Four  to  six  ounces  per  one  hundred  pounds 
of  meat  is  as  much  as  it  is  well  to  use.  Salt  and  saltpeter  have  a 
tendency  to  dry  out  and  harden  the  meat,  hence,  by  adding  a 
little  sugar  or  molasses  the  meat  is  softened  and  the  flavor  is  im- 
proved. For  each  100  pounds  of  meat  use  5  pounds  of  salt,  2 
pounds  of  granulated  sugar,  and  2  ounces  of  saltpeter.  Mix 
them  thoroughly  and  rub  the  meat  once  every  three  days  with  a 
third  of  the  mixture. 

The  brine  cured  meats  are  considered  best  for  farm  use.  Brine 
is  less  troublesome  and  at  the  same  time  gives  better  protection 
against  insects  and  vermin.     During  warm  weather  brine  should 

93 


be  watched  carefully.  If  ifc  becomes  ropy  it  should  be  reboiled 
or  new  brme  made.  Ten  pounds  of  salt,  2  ounces  of  saltpeter 
dissolved  in  four  gallons  of  boiling  water  should  be  used  to  each 
100  pounds  of  meat.  Cool  the  brine  before  pouring  it  over  the 
meat. 

After  the  meat  has  been  cured  thoroughly  by  one  of  the  fore- 
going methods  it  should  be  smoked.  The  meat  should  be  washed 
thoroughly  and  permitted  to  drip  before  the  smoking  process  be- 
gins. The  smoke  should  be  provided  by  a  slow  fire  of  some  hard 
wood  such  as  green  hickory  or  maple.  In  the  winter  months  the 
smoke  should  be  kept  going  continuously  until  the  smoking  is  com- 
pleted. During  the  spring  and  summer  a  light  fire  should  be  kept 
going  a  day  at  a  time  every  two  or  three  days.  This  intermittent 
smoking  should  be  kept  up.  for  two  weeks,  then  provide  a  contin- 
uous smoke  for  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  and  the  smoking 
is  completed. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  183;  Maryland  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  Bulletin  185,  p.  44. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  reports  from  the  members 
of , the  class  as  to  the  methods  of  curing  meat  employed  at  their 
homes;  (2)  make  a  survey  of  the  community's  meat  production 
Secure  these  facts:  (a)  The  number  of  hogs  butchered  at  each 
home,  and  (b)  the  dressed  weight  of  each  hog.  Compile  these 
facts  for  reference. 

Correlations. — Arithmetic:  Find  the  entire  amount  of  meat 
produced,  the  value  at  prevailing  prices,  the  average  weight  of 
each  hog,  and  the  average  amount  of  meat  for  each  home. 

Geography:  Does  the  community  produce  its  own  supply  of 
pork?  If  not,  the  returns  from  what  money  crop  are  spent  for 
pork?  Does  the  community  have  a  surplus  of  pork.  In  what 
market  is  it  sold?     What  articles  are  bought  in  the  same  market? 

LESSON  NINE. 

•Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Soils. — Continue  plowing  when  soil  is  in  condition.  Haul  out 
and  spread  manure  on  the  land.  Note  the  places  on  the  farm 
where  ditches  are  necessary.  When  the  ground  is  not  frozen 
new  ditches  should  be  dug  and  old  ditches,  cleaned  out..  Plan  a 
rotation  of  crops  for  next  yean 

94 


Farm  Animals. — All  animals  on  the  farm  should  now  be  put  on 
full  rations.  The  weather  being  cold  makes  it  necessary  for  ani- 
mals to  have  good  feed,  comfortable  quarters,  and  warm  bedding. 
All  products  such  as  butter,  milk,  and  eggs  bring  good  prices  at 
this  season  so  that  every  attention  should  be  given  animals  yield- 
ing these  products  to  insure  securing  the  best  possible  results: 
Give  careful  attention  to  sick  or  injured  animals. 

Orchard. — Protect  trees  against  "sun  scald."  On  southerly 
slopes  this  trouble  is  very  annoying.  During  the  day  the  sun 
thaws  the  bark  and  then  it  freezes  again  at  night.  Finally  the 
cambium  dies.  High  headed  trees  suffer  more  than  low  headed 
ones.  This  trouble  may  be  prevented  by  shading  the  trunk  with 
a  board  or  other  obstruction  to  the  sun's  rays.  Trees  should  be 
protected  against  mice  and  rabbits.  Boys  aided  by  dogs  and 
guns  may  be  able  to  defend  the  "orchards  against  the  attacks  of 
rabbits  but  mice  must  be  combated  by  other  means.  Keep  the 
orchard  free  of  weeds  and  rubbish,  especially  around  the  trees. 
Mounding  up  the  soil  around  the  trees  proves  helpful.  Keep  the 
snow  packed  or  trampled  down  under  the  trees.  This  prevents 
the  mice  working  under  the  snow.  The  best  defense  against  at- 
tacks of  mice  is  some  such  material  as  heavy  paper  or  wire  netting 
wrapped  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  Sometimes  they  may  be 
kept  away  by  smearing  the  trunk  of  the  tree  with  some  offensive 
material  like  lime-sulphur  paste. 

The  Flower  Garden. — As  soon  as  the  ground  is  frozen  hard 
give  the  lawns  a  top  dressing  of  well  rotted  manure.  An  appli- 
cation of  a  layer  one  inch  deep  is  sufficient.  Do  not  use  fresh 
manure  as  it  contains  weed  seeds  nor  coarse  manure  as  it  makes 
the  lawn  appear  unsightly.  Look  after  young  trees  and  shrubs 
when  a  heavy  snow  has  fallen.  Much  injury  caused  by  branches 
breaking  under  the  weight  of  the  snow  may  be  prevented  by  shak- 
ing off  the  snow.  Evergreens  like  arbor  vitae  should  have  their 
tops  tied  up  to  prevent  snow  lodging  between  the  branches.  Look 
for  bag  worms.  Remove  and  burn  those  found  hanging  on  trees 
and  shrubs. 

Vegetables  and  Small  Fruits. — Make  a  compost  heap  for  the 
hotbed  and  for  the  early  spring  garden.  Mulch  the  strawberries 
with  a  thick  layer  of  leaves,  pine  needles,  or  wheat  straw. 

Plans,  Improvements,  Repairs. — Make  an  inventory  of  the 
farm  property.     Get  ready  to  start  the  new  year  on  a  sound 

95 


business  basis.  Get  in  wood  supplies.  Keep  the  split-log  drag 
at  work.  Fix  up  walks  and  roads.  Look  after  fences  and  re- 
move stumps  from  the  fields.  Begin  to  make  plans  for  the  next 
year.  Lay  out  crops,  decide  as  to  what  tools,  stock,  and  fer- 
tilizers may  be  needed  and  prepare  to  get  them. 

LESSON  TEN. 

Subject:  Rope. 
Topic:  Knots. 

Rope. — The  rope  on  the  farm  and  in  the  home  is  made  from 
either  manila,  sisal  or  cotton.  The  fiber  from  which  the  manila 
rope  is  made  is  secured  from  the  leaf  and  petiole  of  a  kind  of  palm 
tree  that  grows  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  sisal  is  also  se- 
cured from  the  leaf  of  a  plant  known  in  the  Spanish  speaking 
countries  as  henequin.  The  sisal  plant  is  a  native  of  Yucatan. 
The  cotton  cord  and  rope  is  made  from  the  fibers  of  the  cotton 
plant. 

Care  of  Rope. — The  only  kind  of  oil  or  preparation  that  should 
be  used  on  rope  is  tallow.  On  account  of  the  acid  that  is  found 
in  tar,  engineers  estimate  that  a  tarred  rope  is  only  two-thirds  as 
strong  as  a  bright  new  rope.  In  removing  the  rope  from  a  coil,  it 
should  be  drawn  from  the  middle  and  uncoiled  to  the  left.  This 
wiU  prevent  it  from  becoming  twisted. '  The  stiffness  of  a  new 
rope  may  be  overcome  by  coiling  the  rope  in  a  kettle  of  water  and 
then  heating  the  water  to  the  boiling  point.  The  rope  should 
then  be  stretched  out  and  dried.  Rope  should  always  be  stored 
in  a  dry  place. 

Parts  of  Rope. — A  rope  is  composed  of  a  number  of  parts  called 
"strands."  Each  strand  is  made  up  of  a  bundle  of  twisted  fibers 
or  yarns.  Other  terms  that  are  used  in  tying  knots  are  end, 
standing  part,  and  bight  or  loop  (fig.  3). 

Whipping  the  End. — The  end  of  the  rope  is  whipped  to  prevent 
it  from  raveling.  To  do  this,  the  two  ends  of  a  strong  cord  are 
laid  side  by  side  on  the  end  of  the  rope  (fig.  4,  a),  and  held  in  place 
by  the  left  hand.  With  the  right  hand  the  loop  is  neatly  and 
tightly  wound  around  the  end  of  the  rope  h,  until  about  an  inch 
of  the  rope  is  covered.  The  ends  of  the  cord  are  then  drawn  up 
tightly  as  in  c  and  d. 


Overhand  Knot. — Tlie  overhand  knot  is  the  simplest  and  the 
most  used  of  the  knots.  It  is  made  by  making  a  loop  in  the  rope 
and  passing  an  end  through  the  loop  (fig.  5). 

Square  Knot. — The  square  knot  is  commonly  used  in  tying  up 
packages  and  in  fastening  together  the  ends  of  a  rope  or  cord. 
The  easiest  and  surest  way  to  tie  the  square  knot  is  to  do  all  the 
tying  with  one  hand.  Begin  by  tying  an  overhand  knot,  and 
then  cross  the  end  held  in  the  right  hand  over  the  end  held  in  the 


.3 


Fig.  3,     Parts  of  a  Rope. 


Fig.  4.    Whipping  the  End  op  a  Rope. 


left  (fig.  6,  a),  pass  this  right  hand  end  around  the  left  hand  end 
and  draw  the  knot  tight,  h.  If  the  ends  are  passed  around  in  the 
reverse  order  it  will  form  a  knot  that  will  pull  open.  This  knot 
is  called  the  Granny  Knot.  In  fastening  a  shoe  string,  the  square 
knot  should  be  used. 

The  Weaver's  Knot. — The  weaver's  knot  should  be  used  in 
tying  the  two  ends  of  a  broken  strap.  It  may  be  used  in  tying 
cord  or  rope  if  the  tie  is  to  be  loosed  again.     To  make  the  weaver's 

97 


knot  place  the  left  hand  end  over  the  right  hand  end  (fig.  7,  a) 
then  pass  the  standing  part  of  the  right  hand  end  around  this  end, 
6,  and  finally  when  drawn  tight  pull  on  the  main  part  of  the 
rope,  c. 


^^^S^ 


Fig.  5.    Overhand  Knot. 


Fig.  6.    Square  Knot. 

c 


Granny  Knot. 


Fig.  7.    Weaver's  Knot. 


Bowline  Knot. — The  bowline  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
knots.  It  will  not  slip  and  it  will  not  draw  tight.  It  gets  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  sailors  use  this  knot  in  mooring  ships. 


The  knot  is  made  by  holding  the  rope  in  the  left  hand  and  forming 
a  bight  with  the  end  imder  the  standing  part  (fig,  8,  a).  The 
end  is  then  passed  down  through  the  loop,  h,  over  and  around  the 
standing  part  and  back  through  the  loop,  and  then  drawn  tight, 


Fig.  8!    Bowline  Knot. 


Fig.  9.    Double  Bowline  Knot. 


c.     It  is  easier  for  the  beginner  if  the  rope  is  passed  through  a  ring 
or  around  a  stick  to  hold  it  in  place. 

Double  Bowline  Knot. — The  double  bowline  knot  (fig.  9)  has 
all  of  the  advantages  of  the  bowline,  but  it  is  used  only  when  it  is 
desirable  to  hitch  to  any  part  of  the  rope  other  than  the  end.     To 

99 


make  the  double  l)owline  kijot,  pick  up  the  rope  at  the  point 
where  the  knot  is  to  be  made,  and  tie  a  loose  overhand  knot.  Now 
pass  the  loop  end  thus  formed  over  the  knot  and  pull  through  this 
loop  its  own  part  of  the  overhand  knot.  To  finish  the  knot  pull 
the  rope  up  tight. 


Fig.  10.     Sheepshank  Knot. 

Sheepshank. — The  sheepshank  (fig.  10)  is  used  to  temporarily 
shorten  a  rope,  as  in  using  a  long  hay  rope  for  other  purposes. 
The  sheepshank  is  made  by  folding  the  rope  back  at  some  point, 
and  then  throwing  a  small  bight  in  the  main  part  of  the  rope  at 
each  end  of  the  fold,  and  by  passing  each  end  of  the  fold  through 
its  bight.  If  more  than  one  haul  is  to  be  made,  the  sheepshank 
may  be  made  secure  by  passing  the  endi^  of  the  rope  through  the 
loops  on  the  outside  of  the  bight. 


100 


'      ^  JANUARY. 

Introduction. 

This  is  the  fifth  of  the  series  of  publications  in  elementary 
vocational  agriculture  for  the  public  schools  of  Maryland.  The 
same  plan  is  followed  as  was  employed  in  the  preceding  months. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:  Farivt Accounts. 
Topic :  Keeping  Books. 

Importance. — Farming  is  a  business  the  same  as  banking  or 
running  a  department  store.  There  are  products  to  be  grown 
and  sold  and  articles  to  be  bought.  The  keeping  of  a  record  of 
these  and  determining  the  relation  of  the  outgo  to  the  income  are 
important  considerations  on  every  farm.  The  farmer  should 
know  what  his  financial  income  is  and  just  how  he  is  disposing  of 
it.     He  can  know  this  only  by  keeping  books. 

What  Accounts  to  Keep. — These  range  all  the  way  from  taking 
an  inventory  once  each  year  and  comparing  it  with  that  of  the 
previous  year  to  the  keeping  of  detailed  accounts  of  all  receipts 
and  expenditures.  The  least  any  farmer  should  do  is  to  take  a 
yearly  inventory.  But  he  should  not  be  contented  with  that. 
Either  in  a  simple  or  elaborate  way  he  should  account  for  his  in- 
come and  his  expenditures.  On  the  ordinary  farm  a  complex 
system  of  accounting  should  not  be  attempted. 

Cash  Accounts. — In  keeping  a  cash  account  the  word  "cash"  is 
written  across  the  top  of  the  page.  All  cash  received  is  placed  in 
the  cash  space  in  the  left-hand  side,  and  all  cash  paid  out  in  the 
cash  space  at  the  right-hand.  At  the  extreme  left  of  each  side 
the  date  is  placed,  and  between  the  date  and  the  cash  space  the 
item  for  which  cash  has  been  received  or  paid  out  is  written.  Each 
column  of  figures  should  be  totaled  at  the  foot  of  the  page  and 
either  the  totals  or  balance  carried  to  the  next  page.     A  book 

101 


bought  especially  for  the  purpose  or  an  ordinary  blank  note  book 
properly  ruled  may  be  used.  The  following  is  a  sample  sheet  of 
a  cash  account: 

Cash 


1915 

ITEM 

eec'd 

1915 

ITEM 

p/aD 

Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 

1 
10 
20 
30 

1 

Cash  on  hand 

Formeat 

For  butter 

For  eggs 

Cash  on  hand 

$25 

50 

45 

5 

94 

00 
00 
00 
00 

00 

Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 

2 
12 
20 
25 
30 

Groceries 

Coal 

Books 

$4 

12 

4 

6 

5 

00 
00 
00 

Jan. 

Rain  coat 

Boots 

00 
00 

Feb. 

At  the  beginning  of  each  month  a  balance  should  be  struck  and 
the  amount  of  cash  on  hand  indicated.  The  same  sheet  may  be 
used  for  several  months,  if  convenient. 

Individual  Accounts. — Such  accounts  include  those  kept  with 
laborers,  neighbor  farmers,  certain  phases  of  farm  products  and 
the  like.  A  separate  page  in  the  account  book  should  be  set  apart 
for  each  individual  account.  The  following  is  an  example  of  an 
individual  account  with  a  farm  laborer: 


1915 


James  Johnson 


Jan. 


Jan. 
Jan. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Feb. 
Mar. 
Mar. 
Mar. 
Mar. 
Mar. 
April 


10 
15 

1 
1 

15 
1 
1 
5 
7 

20 
1 


Employed  James  Johnson  to 
work  eight  months  from 
date  at  $20.00  per  month . 

To  cash 

To  check 

By  one  month's  work 

To  laundry 

To  check 

By  one  month's  work 

To  laundry 

To  cash 

To  hire  of  horse  and  buggy... 

To  check 

By  month's  work 


$20 


20 


20 


00 


00 


00 


In  the  same  way  accounts  may  be  kept  with  a  neighbor,  with 
the  poultry  flock,  with  the  hogs  or  any  other  phase  of  the  farm 
productions. 

Textbook  References. — Nolan,  pp.  118-122;  Davis,  pp.  341- 
345. 

102 


Teachers*  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  511,  572,  593,  635  and 
654. 

Practical  Exercises. — Each  pupil  of  the  class  should  be  re- 
quired to  secure  an  inexpensive  blank  book,  such  as  a  well  bound 
tablet  or  composition  book  and  properly  rule  it  for  keeping  records. 
If  the  pupils  have  enterprises  of  their  own  they  should  be  encour- 
aged to  keep  proper  accounts  in  these  books.  If  the  pupils  are 
not  engaged  in  projects  or  club  activities  they  should  be  required 
to  keep  accounts  in  connection  with  at  least  one  phase  of  the 
farm  activities  at  home. 

Correlations. — Written  work  is  provided  in  the  preparation  of 
account  books  and  keeping  accounts. 

Arithmetic  problems  should  be  developed  from  the  accounts 
given  in  this  lesson  and  from  the  pupils'  accounts.. 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:  Farm  Animals. 

Topic :  Types  and  Breeds  of  Hogs. 

Types. — There  are  two  types  of  swine,  namely,  the  fat  or  lard 
type  and  the  bacon  type.  Both  types  are  found  in  every  locality 
throughout  the  State  and  they  are  the  outcome  of  local  conditions 
rather  than  market  requirements.  The  fat  or  lard  type  of  hog 
is  found  where  corn  is  used  as  the  principal  feed  and  the  bacon 
type  is  found  on  farms  where  the  hogs  receive  a  variety  of  feeds. 

The  Lard  Type  (fig.  1)  of  hogs  is  one  which  has  compact,  thick, 
deep,  smooth  body  and  is  capable  of  fattening  rapidly  and  matur- 
ing early.  The  hams,  back  and  shoulders  are  the  most  valuable 
parts  and  should  be  developed  to  the  greatest  extent.  The  hind 
quarters  of  the  fat  hog  should  be  comparatively  level  and  the 
flesh  should  extend  well  down  to  the  hocks.  The  whole  body  of 
the  animal  should  be  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  flesh  represent- 
ing the  extreme  development  of  meat  production.  This  type  of 
hog,  under  good  conditions,  will  weigh  200  pounds  or  more  when 
seven  months  of  age,  and  this  is  considered  the  most  popular 
weight  on  the  market.  Because  corn  is  the  most  available  food 
for  our  hogs  and  because  the  fatter  the  animals  the  more  pleasing 
they  are  to  look  upon  are  the  reasons  more  hogs  of  this  type  are 
grown  than  any  other.     Until  the  consumers  demand  a  leaner 

103 


quality  of  pork,  the  lard  type  will  predominate  because  they  ma- 
ture earlier  and  in  most  cases  return  a  greater  profit. 

In  general  appearance  the  hog  is  low  set,  the  head  is  short,  the 
back  broad  and  the  body  deep.  Good  quality  is  shown  by  the 
fineness  of  hair  and  the  neatness  of  the  joints.  The  front  legs 
should  be  well  apart,  an  indication  of  chest  capacity  which  shows 
a  good  constitution.  From  the  side  the  legs  should  appear 
straight,  standing  strong  on  the  toes  with  erect  pasterns.  The 
animal  should  show  extreme  smoothness  throughout  the  whole 
body.     Wrinkles  are  undesirable  causing  much  trouble  in  dressing 


Fig.  1.    Lard  Type:  Poland  China  Breed. 


and  giving  the  dressed  hog  an  unsightly  appearance  upon  reach- 
ing the  market. 

The  Most  Popular  Breeds  of  the  fat  type  are  the  Berkshire, 
Duroc-Jersey,  Poland  China  and  Chester  White. 

The  Bacon  T3rpe  of  Hog  (fig.  2)  is  different  from  the  lard  type 
in  that  these  hogs  are  more  active,  having  longer  legs  and  coarser 
bones  and  do  not  carry  as  much  fat  as  the  former.  This  lean- 
ness is  particularly  noticeable  in  the  jowl  and  that  portion  of  the 
leg  just  above  the  hock.  The  strictly  bacon  type  has  a  much 
greater  distance  from  shoulder  to  ham  than  the  lard  hog.     The 

104 


shoulders  and  hams  are  lighter,  but  the  body  of  the  animal  is 
deep  and  wide  enough  to  give  good  constitution.  The  legs  of  a 
good  constituted  animal  are  set  well  apart.  The  most  valuable 
cuts  on  the  bacon  hog  are  the  upper  parts  of  the  sides  and  especially 
for  that  which  is  known  as  breakfast  bacon.  The  most  popular 
market  weight  for  the  bacon  hog  is  from  175  to  200  pounds  live 
weight.  After  reaching  maturity,  hogs  belonging  to  bacon  breeds 
have  been  known  to  become  very  fat.  The  sows  of  this  type 
have  larger  litters  than  those  of  the  fat  type,  and  this  is  one  of  the 


Fig.  2.    Bacon  Type:  Tamworth  Breed. 


main  points  argued  in  their  favor  by  the  friends  of  the  bacon  hog. 
It  is  certainly  true,  other  things  being  equal,  that  the  sow  that  is 
the  most  prolific  is  the  most  profitable. 

Breeds. — The  Tamworth  and  Large  Yorkshire  are  the  two 
breeds  belonging  to  the  bacon  type.  The  Hampshire  is  classified 
with  the  bacon  type  in  some  sections  and  especially  in  Mary- 
land. 

Textbook  References. — Buffimi  and  Deaver,  pp.  222-224; 
Davis,  278-280;  Nolan,  pp.  86-90;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp. 
279-282. 

106 


Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  150,  174,  and  185;  Farmers'  Bulletins  205,  379,  438, 
and  566. 

Practical  Exercises. — Make  a  community  survey  of  the  hogs. 
Use  the  table  given  below  for  collecting  information.  Each  pupil 
should  be  required  to  make  a  sheet  or  several  sheets  similar  to  the 
one  given  and  fill  in  the  facts  as  determined  at  his  own  and  his 
neighbors'  homes.  The  table  here  given  indicates  the  kinds  of 
information  that  should  be  collected. 


Community  Hog  Survey. 


Name  of  owner. 
Name  of  pupil. 


Date. 


PURE  BRED 

NO.  OP 
MALES 

NO.  OP 
SOWS 

NO.  SMAT.L 
PIGS 

NO    LARGE 
PIGS 

TOTAL 

Berkshire 

Poland  China 

Duroc  Jersey 

Chester  White 

Tam  worth 

Yorkshire 

Hampshire 

GRADES 

NO.  OP 

MAT,K8 

NO.  OP 

SOWS 

NO.  SMALL 
PIGS 

NO. LARGE 
PIGS 

TOTAL 

Berkshire 

Poland  China        

Duroc  Jersey 

Chester  White 

Tamworth 

Yorkshire 

Hampshire 

Scrubs 

Correlations. — Language:  Prepare  tables  for  making  the  com- 
munity hog  survey.  Preparing  tables  and  practice  in  tabulating 
facts  are  profitable  exercises  for  pupils. 

Arithmetic :  From  the  facts  obtained  in  the  hog  survey  develop 
problems  as  to  the  number  and  value  of  hogs  in  the  community. 
Adapt  the  problems  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils. 

106 


LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  The  Orchard. 
Topic:  A  Study  of  Fruit  Buds. 

Importance. — In  order  to  prune  a  tree  intelligently  it  is  neces- 
sary to  understand  its  fruiting  habits.  Buds  may  contain  only 
rudimentary  leaves  or  rudimeatary  flowers  with  or  without  leaves. 
The  former  are  called  leaf  buds  and  the  latter,  flower  or  fruit 
buds.  Fruit  buds  are  often  readily  distinguishable  from  leaf  buds 
by  their  location  and  appearance.  This  enables  the  fruit  grower 
to  anticipate  his  crop  and  it  also  serves  as  a  guide  in  pruning  the 
various  fruits. 

Recognizing  Buds. — In  the  peach  and  apricot  and  many  varieties 
of  plums  a  flower  bud  is  normally  on  each  side  of  the  leaf  bud  on 
the  young  shoots  of  bearing  treee.  In  the  apple  and  pear,  the 
fruit  buds  are  less  definitely  located  but  are  mostly  formed  on 
short,  thick,  gnarly  little  twigs  called  fruit  spurs.  These  spurs 
are  mostly  found  on  wood  that  is  three  or  more  years  old.  In 
the  apple,  cherry,  and  peach  the  flower. buds  are  plumper  and 
more  rounded  than  the  leaf  buds.  In  the  grape,  flowers  appear  at 
the  first  two  or  more  nodes  of  the  young  shoots  that  grow  from 
the  canes  formed  during  the  previous  season,  and  the  shoots  con- 
tinue to  grow  beyond  the  flowers.  The  raspberry,  dewberry,  and 
blackberry  bloom  like  the  grape  except  that  the  flowers  are  formed 
at  the  end  of  the  shoots. 

Textbook  References. — Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  51-59; 
Nolan,  pp.  229-234;  Davis,  pp.  35-41. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  157,  181,  and  471. 

Practical  Exercises. — The  pupils  should  be  asked  to  bring  in 
fruiting  branches  of  the  various  fruits.  If  placed  in  water  and 
properly  cared  for  they  will  develop  nicely  and  come  iato  bloom. 
The  following  procedure  is  suggested. 

The  Apple: 

1.  Note  the  rings  or  scars  on  the  branches.  These  rings  mark 
each  year's  growth.     Trace  age  of  different  twigs. 

2.  Study  fruit  spurs  as  to  (a)  position,  (b)  growth  including 
age,  number  of  buds  and  scars.     What  do  they  indicate? 

3.  Distinguish  fruit  buds  from  leaf  buds.  Fruit  buds  are  plump 
and  rounded.  Cut  open  each  and  examine  contents  with  a  hand 
lens.     Study  as  many  of  the  ather  fruit  buds  as  you  have  time 

107 


for,  compare  them  with  one  another,  determme  wherehi  they  differ 
and  in  what  respects  they  are  alike. 

Correlations. — Language  and  Drawing:  Describe  and  make 
drawings  of  fruit  branches  showing  th^  location  of  buds. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topics:  (1)  Types  and  Breeds. 
(2)  Mating. 

There  are  about  120  varieties  of  chickens  described  in  the  present 
American  Standard  of  Perfection.  With  such  a  large  number  a 
method  of  classification  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  select  a  suitable 
breed  for  one's  use.     The  most  popular  and  practical  classifica- 


FiG.  3.    Egg  Breed:  Brown  Leghorn. 

tion  of  poultry  is  according  to  use.  The  four  classes  or  types 
include  the  egg  breeds  (fig.  3),  the  meat  breeds  (fig.  4),  the  general 
purpose  breeds  (fig.  5),  and  the  fancy  or  ornamental  breeds. 

Egg  Breeds. — The  most  popular  egg  variety  at  the  present  time 
is  the  Single  Comb  White  Leghorn.  They  are  rather  small, 
sprightly,  active,  nervous  birds  and  can  fly  high.     They  rarely 

108 


become  broody  and  when  they  do  they  are  not  very  successful 
hatchers,  therefore  they  are  known  as  non-setters.  They  lay  a 
good  marketable  sized  egg  with  a  uniform  white  color.  They 
lay  well  in  the  winter  time  when  properly  cared  for  but  cannot 
stand  neglect  at  this  time  so  well  as  some  of  the  other  more  heavily 
feathered  breeds.  They  can  hardly  be  classed  as  a  variety  for 
general  farm  use  but  where  one  desires  to  produce  eggs  in  large 
quantities  they  are  as  good  as  can  be  found.  Among  the  other 
egg  breeds  should  be  mentioned  other  ^varieties  of  Leghorns, 
Minorcas,  Spanish,  Hamburgs,  Andalusians,  and  Red  Caps. 


Fig.  4.    General  Purpose  Breed:  Orpington. 

Meat  Breeds. — The  large  meat  breeds  are  not  so  popular  as 
they  were  a  few  years  ago.  The  Light  Brahma,  the  largest  breed 
of  fowls  has  a  standard  weight  of  9|  pounds  for  the  hen,  and  12 
pounds  for  the  cock  bird.  Other  meat  breeds  are  the  Cochins 
and  Dorkings. 

The  General  Purpose  Breeds  are  very  popular  as  a  farmers' 
and  villagers'  type.  Most  of  these  breeds  lay  very  well  and  in 
addition  produce  a  meat  carcass  that  suits  a  majority  of  the  con- 
sumers. The  average  family  cannot  use  either  the  extremely 
large  or  small  breeds  economically.     The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock 

109 


has  been  the  old  farm  standby  for  many  years  and  it  is  still  very 
popular  although  some  of  the  newer  breeds  are  creeping  in.  One 
of  the  advantages  of  this  variety  is  that  many  consumers  have 
come  to  think  that  Barred  Feathers  and  good  meat  always  go 
together.  This  helps  the  sale  of  this  variety.  About  the  only 
objection  to  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  that  can  be  raised  is  its 
black  pin  feathers  which  do  not  help  the  looks  of  the  dressed 
product. 

There  are  many  varieties  to  chose  from  when  selecting  a  general 
purpose  fowl.     There  are  six  varieties  of  Plymouth  Rocks,  eight 


m^  V, 


.^^^■Mi.. 


Fig.  5.    Meat  Breed:  White  Brahma. 


Varieties  of  Wyaiidottes,  two  varieties  of  Rhode  Island  Reds 
four  varieties  of  Orpingtons,  two  varieties  of  Sussex,  and  several 
other  rather  popular  varieties  often  used  for  general  purpose 
poultry.  All  these  general  purpose  varieties  are  good  sitters  and 
mothers,  which  is  quite  an  item  with  the  man  who  keeps  only  a 
few  chickens  and  does  not  hatch  with  an  incubator. 

Ornamental  Breeds. — ^By  going  into  a  large  poultry  show  you 
will  find  birds  of  many  freak  colors  and  shapes.  You  will  find 
birds  with  naked  necks  or  with  huge  crests  or  top  knots;  birds  with 

110 


long  legs  and  necks  and  with  their  combs  cut  off;  birds  with  legs 
so  short  you  can  hardly  see  them;  birds  with  curly  feathers,  some 
with  no  real  feathers  but  covered  with  down;  some  so  small  they 
need  special  cages,  and  most  anything  else  it  is  possible  to  breed. 
These  are  what  are  usually  termed  ornamental  breeds. 

Mating. — Some  time  during  January  or  February  is  the  proper 
time  to  mate  breeding  stock.  The  first  and  most  important 
thing  to  consider  in  this  connection  is  the  health,  vigor,  and  vitality 
of  the  stock.  You  cannot  get  strong,  vigorous  stock  unless  you 
select  strong,  vigorous  birds  for  the  breeding  pen.  One  should 
have  no  trouble  in  picking  out  the  strong,  healthy  birds.  Use 
only  those  that  have  good  deep  bodies,  bright  combs,  healthy 
plumage  and  evidences  of  health  apparent  all  over  them. 

The  Number  of  Hens  that  can^be  allowed  with  one  male  varies 
greatly.  Where  a  cockerel  is  used,  the  birds  have  free  range  of  a 
farm,  a  medium  sized  breed  is  kept  and  the  birds  are  in  a  good 
healthy  condition,  from  12  to  15  hens  can  be  safely  kept  with  one 
male.  A  smaller  number  is  desirable  when  cock  birds  are  used  or 
when  the  flock  is  kept  confined  in  small  yards.  More  hens  can 
be  allowed  to  a  male  in  the  case  of  the  Leghorn  breeds,  as  many  as 
20  or  25  being  used  under  favorable  conditions.  With  very  large 
breeds  the  number  of  hens  to  each  male  should  be  less. 

Eggs  May  Be  Saved  for  hatching  after  the  flock  has  been  mated 
a  week  or  ten  days.  Eggs  laid  10  days  or  even  two  weeks  after 
the  male  has  been  removed  will  frequently  hatch. 

When  two  or  more  males  are  kept  in  one  pen  they  often  fight. 
This  may  prove  harmful  to  the  fertility  of  the  eggs.  In  this  case 
it  is  good  policy  to  let  only  one  male  out  at  a  time,  keeping  the 
other  or  others  penned  up.  When  on'y  two  are  used  they  can  be 
let  out  on  alternate  days. 

Textbook  References. — Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  225-228; 
Nolan,  110-114;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  282-286;  Davis, 
pp.  283-287. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  287,  528,  and  562; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  157  and  171. 

Practical  Exercises. — A  community  poultry  survey  should  be 
made  this  month.  Have  the  members  of  the  class  prepare  sheets 
similar  to  the  suggestion  found  following  and  collect  the  informa- 
tion indicated.  Each  member  of  the  class  should  collect  data 
at  his  home  and  at  the  homes  of  his  neighbors.     After  the  sheets 

111 


have  been  brought  in  all  the  figures  should  be  compiled  for  refer- 
ence. 

Community  Poultry  Survey. 


Name  of  owner 

Name  of  pupil Date. 


TYPE 

BREED 

NO.  OF 

MALES 

NO.  OP 

HENS 

NO.  OF 
PUL- 
LETS 

NO. FOR 

MEAT 

TOTAL 

Egg 

Meat 

General  Purpose 

Fancy 

Grand  Total 

Correlations. — Language:  Preparing  sheets  and  tabulating  the 
poultry  survey  records  provide  profitable  written  work. 

Arithmetic:  From  the  facts  tabulated  in  connection  with  the 
poultry  survey  develop  problems  as  to  the  value  of  the  poultry  in 
the  community,  the  number  in  each  breed,  the  fractional  part  and 
the  per  cent  that  the  number  in  each  breed  is  to  the  whole  num- 
ber.    Adapt  the  problems  to  the  advancement  of  the  pupils. 


112 


LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:  Dairying. 
Topic.  Testing  Milk. 

Importance. — The  principal  advantage  of  the  milk  tester  on 
the  farm  is  that  it  enables  the  farmer  to  detect  the  cows  that  are 
profitable  and  unprofitable  and  hence  to  improve  the  herd.  The 
producer  of  milk  is  able  also  to  determine  the  quantity  and  value 
of  the  milk. 

Equipment. — The  following  parts  are  necessary  for  making  the 
test:  (a)  Babcock  tester,  (b)  milk  bottle  with  graduated  neck,  (c) 
pipette  or  milk  measure,  (d)  acid  measure. 

Making  a  Babcock  Test. — The  steps  are  the  following : 

(1)  Secure  a  fairly  fresh  sample  of  milk  and  thoroughly  mix  it. 

(2)  Immediately  insert  the  pipette  or  milk  measure  and  suck 
until  the  milk  has  gone  above  the  mark  on  the  pipette,  then  quickly 
place  the  forefinger  over  the  top  and  allow  the  milk  to  run  down 
to  the  mark  by  slightly  relieving  the  pressure  of  the  finger.  The 
pipette  now  contains  17.6  cubic  centimeters  of  milk. 

(3)  Empty  the  milk  in  the  bottle  by  permitting  it  to  flow  down 
the  side  of  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

(4)  The  acid  measure  contains,  when  filled  to  the  proper  mark, 
17.5  cubic  centimeters  of  acid.  The  measure  should  be  filled  with 
sulphuric  acid  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.82  to  1.83.  The  acid 
should  be  emptied  into  the  milk  bottle  in  the  same  way  as  in  the 
case  of  the  milk.  Permit  it  to  run  slowly  down  the  side  of  the 
neck  of  the  bottle. 

(5)  Mix  the  acid  with  the  milk  by  giving  the  bottle  a  rotary  or 
turning  motion. 

(6)  Allow  the  mixture  to  stand  a  few  minutes. 

(7)  Again  mix  the  milk  and  acid  by  shaking  and  place  the  bottle 
in  the  tester. 

(8)  Run  tester  five  minutes  at  the  rate  of  speed  recommended. 

(9)  Now  add  moderately  hot  water  (above  180°  F.)  until  the 
contents  come  to  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

(10)  Whirl  three  minutes  in  the  tester. 

(11)  Add  moderately  hot  water  (above  180°  F.)  until  the  con- 
tents of  the  bottle  reach  about  the  8  per  cent  mark. 

(12)  Whirl  one  more  minute  and  read  the  test.  The  difference 
between  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  fat  column  gives  the  per  cent 
of  fat. 

112 


(13)  Points  to  observe  in  making  the  test :  (a)  Be  sure  to  have  a 
fair  sample  of  milk;  (b)  the  temperature  of  the  milk  should  be 
from  60  to  70°;  (c)  the  tester  should  run  at  the  right  speed  and 
should  not  jar;  (d)  read  the  test  twice  to  insure  correct  reading. 

Textbook  References. — Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  304- 
308;Nolan,  pp.  107-110. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  169  and  187. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  If  practicable  have  the  school  secure 
a  five  dollar  Babcock  tester.  Require  the  pupils  to  bring  to 
school  specimens  of  milk  and  give  them  practice  in  testing  milk. 
When  they  have  learned  to  make  the  test  accurately  they  should 
select  carefully  specimens  of  milk  and  make  the  tests  to  determine 
the  value  of  the  cows  at  home  as  butterfat  producers.  (2)  The 
members  of  the  class  having  Babcock  testers  at  their  homes 
should  be  required  to  make  reports  on  the  tests  made. 

Correlations. — Language :  Writing  up  reports  of  the  milk  tests 
made  at  school  and  at  the  homes  of  the  members  of  the  class  pro- 
vides suitable  language  work. 

Drawing:  Have  the  pupils  make  sketches  of  the  parts  of  the 
equipment  used  in  testing  milk. 

Arithmetic:  (1)  How  many  pounds  of  butterfat  in  2500  pounds 
of  milk  testing  4:1  per  cent? 

(2)  A  farmer  has  a  herd  of  20  cows  that  average  22  pounds  of . 
milk  each  daily.  How  many  pounds  of  milk  does  he  get  in  30 
days?  If  the  milk  tests  4  per  cent  butter  fat,  how  many  pounds 
are  produced  each  day?  In  30  days?  At  25  cents  a  pound  what 
is  the  value  of  each  day's  production?  What  is  the  value  of  30 
days'  production?  Have  pupils  gather  data  at  their  homes  and 
develop  similar  problems. 

LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:  Dairying. 
Topic:  Breeds. 

Dairy  Breeds. — The  dairy  breeds  of  cattle  common  in  the 
United  States  are  Hoist ein,  Ayrshire,  Jersey,  Guernsey;  Dutch 
Belted  and  Brown  Swiss.  Among  the  breeds  commonly  found  in 
Maryland  are  Holstein,  Ayrshire,  Guernsey  and  Jersey. 

114 


The  Dairy  Type.  TIic  individual  of  a  highly  (Ic^'clopcd  dairy 
hrcHul  is  characterized  by  the  following;-  points: 

(1)  Extreme  angular  form,  no  surplus  flesh  but  indications  of 
vigorous  physical  condition. 

(2)  Extraordinary  development  of  the  udder  and  milk  veins. 

(3)  Large,  well  developed  barrel  as  compared  with  the  size  of 
the  animal. 

The  Holstein. — This  breed  (fig.  6)  originated  in  Holland.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  in  existence  and  the  largest  of  the  dairy  breeds 
The  average  weight  of  the  mature  cow  is  1200  pounds,  and  males 


Fig.  6.    Holstein  Breed. 

weigh  from  1800  to  2200  pounds.  The  color  markings  are  varie- 
gated white  and  black.  Usually  about  equal  parts  of  white  and 
black  are  preferred. 

As  a  breed  the  Hoist eins  have  the  best  disposition  or  tempera- 
ment of  any  dairy  breed.  While  cows  of  this  breed  have  an 
abundance  of  nervous  energy  they  are  not  excitable  or  easily  dis- 
turbed. Holsteins  produce  more  milk  than  any  other  breed,  but 
the  per  cent  of  fat  averages  the  lowest.  This  breed  is  better 
adapted  to  the  production  of  milk  for  the  market  and  for  cheese 

115 


making  than  for  butter  making.  The  cows  are  heavy  feeders 
and  require  level,  rich  pastures.  The  breeding  qualities  are 
excellent. 

The  Ayrshires. — The  native  home  of  this  breed  (fig.  7)  is  the 
county  or  shire  of  Ayr  in  southwest  Scotland.  The  average  cow 
weighs  1000  pounds  and  the  males  range  in  weight  from  1400  to 
2000  pounds.  The  common  color  is  spotted  red  or  brown  and 
white  in  varying  proportions. 

The  animals  of  this  breed  are  more  active  and  alert  than  the 
Holsteins,  but  they  are  not  easily  excited  or  disturbed.     They 


Fig.  7.    Ayrshire  Breed. 


are  good  breeders.  The  milk  is  richer  in  fat  than  that  of  the 
Holsteins,  but  the  quantity  produced  is  not  so  great.  This  breed 
is  well  adapted  to  market  milk  production. 

The  Jersey. — This  breed  (fig.  8)  takes  its  name  from  the  island 
on  which  it  was  developed  in  the  English  Channel.  This  is  the 
smallest  of  the  dairy  breeds,  excepting  the  Kerry.  The  average 
cow  of  this  breed  weighs  between  800  pounds  and  900  pounds. 
The  males  range  from  1200  to  1700.     The  Jersey  cow  is  looked 

116 


upon  as  being  the  model  of  what  is  considered  the  dairy  form. 
She  has  the  pronounced  wedge  shape,  large  barrel,  well  developed 
udder,  and  no  excessive  flesh  while  in  full  milk  flow.  The  most 
common  color  is  fawn  with  black  markings.  The  color  may  vary 
from  almost  white  to  dark  gray  or  black. 

The  cows  are  of  a  highly  nervous  temperament.  They  are 
gentle  when  carefully  handled,  but  the  reverse  when  abused. 
The  quantity  of  milk  is  less  than  almost  any  dairy  breed,  but  it  is 


Fig.  8.     Jersey  Breed. 


considered  the  richest  in  fat.  This  breed  is  well  adapted  to  butter 
production.  The  cows  are  good  breeders  and  bear  calves  at  a 
very  early  age. 

The  Guernsey. — This  breed  (fig.  9)  originated  on  the  island  of 
the  same  name  in  the  English  Channel.  The  Guernsey  cow 
weighs  about  1000  pounds.  This  breed  is  coarser  boned  and  more 
irregular  in  form  than  the  Jersey.     The  colors  range  from  an 

117 


orange  yellow  to  an  orange  fawn  with  while  markings  on  Ihe  face, 
flanks,  legs  and  switch.  The  temperament  of  the  Guernsey  cow 
is  quite  good.  *  Although  she  possesses  an  abundance  of  nervous 
energy  she  is  not  excitable  or  irritable.  The  conformation  of  the 
Guernsey  is  of  the  dairy  type.  The  breeding  qualities  are  fair, 
but  the  cows  do  not  come  to  maturity  as  early  as  do  the  Jerseys. 
The  milk  and  butter  have  the  yellowest  color  of  any  breed. 
Like  the  Jerseys  the  Guernseys  are  not  adapted  to  the  production 


5  ^^     *t^^f^ 

H 

PvBHRj 

Fig.  9.     Guernsey  Breed. 


of  market  milk.  Their  special  adaptation  is  in  the  production  of 
cream  or  butter. 

Textbook  References. — Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  211-215; 
Nolan,  pp.  78-80;  Burketfc,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  273-275;  Davis, 
pp.  263-269. 

Teachers*  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  106. 

Practical'Exercises. — Make  a  survey  of  the  dairy  cattle  of  the 
community.     Have  the  members  of  the  class  prepare  sheets  sim- 

118 


ilar  to  the  one  following  and  collect  the  data  indicated  thereon. 
Compile  the  data  and  preserve  it  for  reference. 

Community  Dairy  Cattle  Survey. 

Name  of  owner 

Name  of  pupil Date 


PURE  BRED 

NO.  OP 
MALES 

NO.  OF 
COWS 

NO.  OP 
HEIFERS 

NO.  OP 
CALVES 

TOTAL 

Holstein      

Ayrshire 

. 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Brown  Swiss 

Grade 

* 

Scrubs 

Grand  Total 

Correlations. — Language:  Make  sheets  for  the  dairy  cattle 
survey  and  tabulate  the  data  collected. 

Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  as  to  the  nuiriber  and  value  of 
dairy  cattle  in  the  community.  Compare  the  values  of  pure 
bred  and  grade  animals.  Adapt  the  problems  to  the  advance- 
ment of  the  pupils. 


LESSON  SEVEN. 

Subject:  Horticulture. 
Topic:  Planning  the  Garden. 

Location. — The  garden  should  be  located  as  near  the  house  as 
possible  to  make  it  convenient  both  for  working  it  and  for  gather- 
ing vegetables.  The  work  in  a  garden  is  usually  done  at  spare 
times,  and  for  this  reason  alone  it  should  be  near  the  dwelling. 
It  is  an  easy  matter  to  change  the  location  of  the  garden  and  some- 
times it  is  advisable  every  five  or  six  years. 

119 


The  lay  of  the  land  has  much  to  do  with  the  time  that  the  soil 
may  be  worked.  A  gentle  slope  toward  the  south  or  southeast  is 
desirable  for  the  production  of  early  crops.  Good  drainage  is 
essential  as  water  should  not  stand  on  the  land.  The  garden 
should  not  be  subject  to  overflow. 

A  good  fence  around  the  garden  is  almost  indispensable.  It 
should  protect  the  crops  against  animals  of  all  kinds,  including 
poultry  and  rabbits. 

Plan  and  Arrangement. — It  is  impossible  to  suggest  a  plan 
suited  to  all  conditions,  but  where  possible,  the  garden  should 
have  much  greater  length  than  breadth.  This  makes  it  possible 
to  use  machinery  and  horses  in  the  cultivation.  The  accom- 
panying plan  and  arrangement  should  prove  suggestive  (see  plan 
on  page  121) : 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  173-174;  Nolan,  pp.  238- 
241;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  154-156. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  218,  255,  and  647. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  each  member  of  the  class  to  draw 
to  scale  the  home  garden.  Compare  the  several  drawings  in  the 
class  and  discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  in  each  case. 

Correlations. — Drawing :  This  work  is  provided  for  in  the  prac- 
tical exercise. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  area  of  the  garden  at  the  home  of  each 
member  of  the  class.  Find  the  number  of  square  feet,  square 
yards,  square  rods,  and  the  fraction  of  an  acre  in  each  garden. 

Find  the  cost  of  the  material  inclosing  each  garden  spot. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  Farm  Animals. 

i(l)  Standards  for  Studying 
Horses  and  Dairy  Cattle 
(2)  Lice. 

Types  of  Horses. — There  are  two  types  of  horses  in  general  use. 
The  draft  horses  such  as  the  Percherons,  Belgians,  and  Clydes- 
dales, do  the  heavy  hauling  in  our  cities  and  draw  the  heavy 
loaded  wagons  and  other  implements  on  the  farm.  Draft  horses 
should  not  weigh  less  than  1500  pounds.  Although  we  frequently 
see  much  smaller  horses  pulling  the  heavy  binder  or  roller  on  the 
farm,  this  kind  of  labor  could  be  done  much  more  economically 
if  heavier  horses  were  used.     The  draft  horse  should  be  large  and 

120 


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121 


massive,  powerful  in  form  and  appearance,  and  possessing  big, 
heavy  bones. 

The  horses  which  are  used  to  convey  rapidly  along  the  road 
light  driving  vehicles  are  known  as  light  harness  horses.  This 
tjrpe  of  horse  is  useful  on  the  farm  in  making  quick  trips  to  the 
market  and  performing  other  errands  where  speed  is  required  more 
than  power.  This  kind  of  horse  should  not  be  expected  to  per- 
form good  service  under  the  tongue  of  a  heavy  binder  or  at  the 
end  of  a  plow.  Many  farmers  expect  their  horses  to  do  heavy 
farmi  labor  and  then  draw  a  buggy  rapidly  along  the  road  when 
such  work  is  desired.  Horses  of  this  type  are  as  tall  and  long  as 
the  draft  horses,  but  carry  less  flesh.  They  are,  ajso,  lighter  in 
bone  and  muscle. 

STANDARD   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   A  DRAFT  HORSE. 

1.  Weight,  1500  pounds  or  more. 

2.  Height,  16  hands  or  more., 

3.  Hair,  fine  and  soft. 

4.  Skin,  loose. 

5.  Action,  as  the  horse  moves  away  the  feet  should  be  picked  up  with 
a  snap  showing  the  sole  of  the  foot  clearly  with  each  step. 

6.  Body,  broad,  deep.  The  distance  between  the  shoulders  and  the 
point  where  the  rump  begins  should  be  much  shorter  than  the  under  line. 
A  sloping  shoulder  is  desirable  but  steepness  of  rump  and  low  setting  of 
tail  are  undesirable  points. 

7.  Feet,  large,  wide  on  top  and  behind,  turning  neither  in  nor  out  at 
the  toe. 

8.  General  appearance,  thrifty  and  vigorous. 

STANDARD    OF   EXCELLENCE    FOR   A  DRIVING   HORSE. 

1.  Weight,  900  pounds  or  more. 

2.  Height,  15  hands  or  more. 

3.  Neck,  long  and  slender. 

4.  Chest,  less  breadth,  but  greater  proportionate  depth  than  that  of 
the  draft  horse. 

5.  Hair,  fine  and  soft. 

6.  Skin,  loose. 

7.  Action,  as  the  horse  moves  the  feet  should  be  picked  up  and  carried 
straight  to  the  front.  The  feet  should  not  be  thrown  out,  making  a  cir- 
cular motion  rather  than  straight.  The  feet  should  not  interfere  with 
each  other,  nor  show  clumsiness  of  any  kind. 

8.  Body,  long,  sloping  shoulder,  short  back,  and  long,  straight  rump. 

9.  Legs,  clean  and  smooth.  The  cannon  on  both  front  and  hind  limbs 
should  approach  the  shape  of  a  lath. 

10.  General  appearance,  vigorous,  physical  condition. 

122 


STANDARD    OF   EXCELLENCE    FOR   DAIRY   COW. 

1.  Head,  neck  and  chest,  should  be  fine  and  indicate  dairy  qualities. 

2.  Form,  deeper  and  wider  in  paunch  than  at  the  heart  girth.  The 
heart  girth  should  be  large  enough  to  give  ample  room  for  the  heart,  lungs 
and  other  organs.  The  depth  and  width  should  gradually  increase  from 
front  to  rear.    The  backbone  should  be  prominent  and  open  jointed. 

3.  Skin,  thin,  loose,  soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch. 

4.  Hair,  soft  and  fine. 

5.  Fore  quarters,  free  from  beefiness. 

6.  Hind  quarters,  the  rump  should  be  long,  wide  and  level.  Thighs 
thin  and  incurving. 


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Fig.  10.     Points  of  Dairy  Cow. 


\ 


7.  Udder,  attached  high  behind  and  extending  far  in  front.  Quarters 
should  be  even,  the  teats  evenly  placed  and  of  convenient  size  for  milking. 
Prominent  udder  veins, 

8.  Milk  veins,  large  long  and  crooked,  passing  through  large  openings 
into  the  body. 

Lice. — During  the  month  of  January  lice  begin  to  appear  on 
farm  animals  in  large  numbers.  This  is  especially  true  of  calves 
and  colts.  Lice  should  be  prevented  as  they  hinder  the  profitable 
growth  of  our  young  stock  and  sometimes  stunt  them  to  such  a 
marked  degree  that  they  are  in  many  cases  unprofitable  animals 
ever  afterwards.     Preventive  measures  should  be  taken  whether 

123 


there  are  indications  of  lice  or  not.  A  remedy  for  prevention  or 
destruction  of  lice  on  calves: 

Dissolve  one-half  pound  of  soap  in  a  gallon  of  water.  To  this 
add  two  gallons  of  kerosene.  Mix  thoroughly.  Add  19  gallons 
of  water  and  apply  with  spray  pump  or  brush. 

A  remedy  for  prevention  or  destruction  of  lice  on  colts : 

Kerosene,  1  part;  linseed  oil,  10  parts.  Mix  thoroughly  and 
apply  with  a  stiff  brush. 

Textbook  References. — Nolan,  p.  80;  Burketfc,  Stevens  and 
Hill,  pp.  266-270;  Davis,  pp.  253-256,  and  p.  269. 

Teachers*  Reading. — Farmers*  Bulletins  612  and  619;  Mary- 
land Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  121. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Take  the  members  of  the  class  to 
farms  where  draft  horses,  carriage  horses  and  dairy  breeds  are 
kept  and  give  fche  pupils  practice  in  judging  animals  according  to 
the  standards  given  in  this  lesson.  (2)  Another  good  plan 
would  be  to  have  farmers  to  bring  such  animals  to  school  on  dif- 
ferent days.  Invite  the  county  demonstration  agent  to  meet 
with  the  class  on  such  occasions. 

Correlations. — Language :  Have  the  members  of  the  class  make 
out  standards  of  excellence  on  separate  sheets.  These  should  be 
used  in  the  practical  exercises.  The  notes  taken  in  connection 
with  the  judging  of  animals  should  be  written  out  in  full  and  sub- 
mitted as  language  exercises. 

LESSON  NINE. 

Subject:  Rope. 
Topic:  Hitches. 

The  Timber  Hitch. — The  timber  hitch  is  used  in  fastening  a 
rope  to  a  heavy  log  or  piece  of  lumber.  To  make  the  hitch  pass 
the  rope  around  the  log,  thea  around  the  standing  part  of  the  rope. 
The  hitch  is  completed  by  passing  the  end  under  and  around  the 
portion  of  the  rope  surrounding  the  log  and  drawing  it  up  tight 
(fig.  11).  The  advantages  of  the  timber  hitch  are:  The  fastening 
may  be  made  quickly  and  securely,  and  the  rope  is  easily  and 
quickly  removed. 

The  Half  Hitch. — The  first  step  of  the  half  hitch  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  timber  hitch.     The  hitch  is  finished  by  passing  the 

124 


end  under  the  rope  surrounding  the  log  only  once  and  then  draw- 
ing it  up  tight  (fig.  12).  This  hitch  may  be  used  in  fastening  a 
rope  to  light  pieces  of  lumber  as  scantlings  and  boards. 


Fig.  11.    Timber  Hitch. 


Fig.  12.    Half  Hitch. 


Fig.  13.    Clove  Hitch. 


Fig.  14. 
Blackwall  Hitch. 


Clove  Hitch. — To  know  how  to  make  the  clove  hitch  is  quite 
useful  to  anyone  on  the  farm.  This  hitch  is  used  in  fastening  a 
rope  t  o  a  round,  smooth  body  as  a  pump  stock.     If  properly  made, 

125 


this  hitch  will  not  slip.  To  make  the  clove  hitch,  pass  the  end 
once  around  the  part  to  be  fastened  and  over  the  standing  part; 
pass  the  end  of  the  rope  around  again,  and  finish  the  fastening  by 
placing  the  end  under  the  last  turn  of  the  rope,  then  draw  it  up 
tight  (fig.  13).  In  drawing  a  pump  stock  out  of  a  well,  make  the 
clove  hitch  in  the  rope  and  then  push  it  down  over  the  pump 
stock. 

Blackwall  Hitch. — The  Blackwall  hitch  is  used  where  it  is 
desired  to  quickly  fasten  a  rope  to  a  hook.  It  is  made  by  pass- 
ing the  rope  through,  and  around  the  back  of  the  curve  in  the 
hook;  then  under  the  standing  part  of  the  rope  so  that  when  the 
pull  is  made  the  bind  will  come  on  the  part  of  the  rope  lying  in 


Fig.  15.    Running  Hitch. 

the  bottom  of  the  hook  (fig.  14).  The  hitch  may  be  made  at  any 
point  in  the  rope  by  forming  a  bight  and  passing  it  over  the 
hook  as  shown  in  figure  14. 

Running  Hitch. — The  running  hitch  is  used  in  fastening  a  rope 
to  a  ring.  It  is  made  more  quickly  than  the  bowline  knot,  and 
does  not  draw  tight  as  is  the  case  of  the  slip  knot  so  commonly 
used.  In  making  the  running  hitch  pass  the  end  through  the  ring, 
around  the  standing  part  several  times  on  the  inside  of  the  loop 
thus  formed,  and  once  around  the  standing  part  on  the  outside  of 
the  loop  (fig.  15).  If  made  correctly  the  hitch  will  not  slip  or 
draw  tight. 

Textbook  Reference. — Nolan,  pp.  165-167. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  638. 

126 


Practical  Exercises. — Practice  the  pupils  in  making  the  hitches 
described  in  this  lesson.  A  piece  of  rope  should  be  provided  for 
the  purpose. 

Correlations. — Language  and  Drawing:  After  the  several 
hitches  have  been  made  require  the  members  of  the  class  to  relate 
the  steps  taken  and  to  make  drawings  of  the  completed  hitch. 

LESSON  TEN. 

Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Soil. — Take  good  care  of  all  accumulated  manure.  If  the  fields 
are  in  condition  to  get  on  with  a  wagon  and  a  team  distribute  the 
manure  as  it  accumulates,  otherwise  store  it  carefully.  This  is  a 
good  month  to  clean  up  rubbish  about  the  farm. 

Farm  Animals. — ^All  farm  animals  should  be  well  housed  and 
fed  this  month.  This  is  one  of  the  coldest  and  most  disagreeable 
months  of  the  year  and  animals  require  careful  attention. 
Butcher  the  remaining  hogs.  Corn  is  too  expensive  to  feed  to 
fattening  hogs  during  cold  weather.  Begin  to  select  and  mate 
the  flocks  that  are  to  produce  eggs  for  incubation.  Too  much 
emphasis  cannot  be  placed  on  the  importance  of  this  work.  The 
character  of  the  future  flocks,  depends  upon  what  is  done  now. 

Treat  all  young  animals  for  lice.  Calves,  colts,  and  pigs  that 
are  damaged  by  lice  already  rarely  make  proper  development. 

Use  the  Babcock  tester  this  month.  The  cows  that  are  not 
giving  satisfactory  returns  should  be  eliminated  from  the  herd. 
Feed  at  this  season  is  too  expensive  to  use  with  unprofitable 
animals. 

Improvements,  Plans,  Repairs. — Preparations  should  be  made 
for  taking  in  new  land.  This  is  a  good  season  to  make  additions 
to  barns  and  other  buildings.  For  personal  improvement  the 
farmer  should  attend  the  short  course  at  the  agricultural  college. 
He  should  also  arrange  to  secure  the  publications  of  the  Agricul- 
tural College  and  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  In 
the  mountainous  section  of  the  State  heavy  hauling  should  be 
done  while  sledding  is  good. 

Prepare  to  keep  an  account  of  the  year's  business.  Open  an 
account  book.  Transcribe  the  farm  inventory  onto  this  book. 
Keep  a  daily  account  of  receipts  and  disbursements.  If  time  per- 
mits carry  separate  accounts  with  the  more  important  phases  of 

127 


the  farm  operations,  such  as  dairying,  poultry  products,  hog  rais- 
ing, and  the  like.  Separate  accounts  should  be  carried  with  each 
farm  laborer  and  with  neighbors  and  others  with  whom  contin- 
uous transactions  are  made. 

Plans  should  be  made  to  dispose  of  surplus  products  and  to 
purchase  necessary  supplies  and  equipment  for  the  year's  opera- 
tions. 

All  farm  implements  should  be  kept  indoors,  roads  should  be 
repaired  as  needed,  harness  and  tools  should  be  put  in  good  a 
state  of  repair.  Waste  lands  should  be  cleared  of  briars  and  brush 
and  preparations  made  for  converting  such  places  into  pastures. 


128 


FEBRUARY. 
Introduction. 

This  is  the  sixth  of  the  series  of  publications  in  elementary 
vocational  agriculture  for  the  public  schools  of  Maryland.  The 
same  plan  is  followed  as  for  the  previous  months.  The  teachers 
should  not  fail  to  provide  themselves  with  all  the  reference  mate- 
rial. Remember  that  the  best  results  cannot  be  had  unless  the 
subject  matter  of  the  lesson  is  supplemented  with  the  material 
found  in  the  bulletins  of  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  and  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:  Crops. 

Topic:  Testing  Seed  Com. 

Importance. — The  ears  of  com  that  were  selected  and  stored  in 
the  fall  should  be  tested  to  determine  the  vitality  or  germinating 
power  of  the  kernels.  An  ear  may  have  the  appearance  of  being 
well  suited  for  seed  but  the  kernels  may  lack  sufficient  vitality  to 
germinate  or  produce  a  thrifty  stalk.  Even  when  a  larger  number 
of  grains  are  planted  in  each  hill  than  should  be  left  to  grow,  the 
testing  of  seed  is  important  to  insure  a  stand  of  thrifty  stalks. 
Among  the  signs  of  poor  germination  are  a  dark  area  near  the  tip 
of  the  grain  and  a  shriveled  tip.  The  germination  test  is  the 
surest  method  of  determining  the  vitality  of  seed. 

The  Germinating  Box. — Any  shallow  box  (fig.  1)  of  convenient 
size  may  be  used  for  the  germinating  test.  Such  a  box  may  be 
easily  made  from  ordinary  boards.  The  proper  depth  is  3  to  4 
inches.  The  length  and  breadth  depend  upon  the  number  of 
ears  to  be  tested.  Four  square  inches  or  checks  2  inches  square 
should  be  allowed  for  the  grains  from  each  ear.  The  box  should 
be  filled  with  damp  sand  or  sawdust  to  a  depth  of  one  or  more 
inches,  or  should  have  placed  in  the  bottom  two  or  three  thick- 
nesses of  flannel  or  similar  cloth.     These  are  to  hold  the  moisture 

129 


necessary  to  enable  the  kernels  to  germinate.  Over  the  moisture 
container  should  be  placed  a  white  cloth  having  the  same  dimen- 
sions as  the  inside  of  the  box,  and  laid  out  in  checks  2  inches 
square.  Each  check  should  be  numbered  to  correspond  to  the 
number  of  the  ear  from  which  the  kernels  are  taken.  The  num- 
bers should  be  arranged  in  order.  Another  cloth  should  be  pro- 
vided to  cover  the  kernels  when  they  are  placed  in  position  and 
additional  sand,  sawdust,  or  flannel  should  be  spread  over  this 
cloth. 

Making  the  Test. — The  ears  to  be  tested  should  be  numbered 
and  placed  in  a  rack.  From  different  parts  of  each  ear  select  six 
kernels.     Place  these  on  the  check  in  the  germinating  box,  the 


FiQ.  1.    Germinating  Box. 

number  of  which  corresponds  to  the  number  of  the  ear.  Cover  the 
kernels  with  the  cloth  and  other  covering  material.  If  the  mate- 
rial placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  that  placed  over  the  ker- 
nels has  been  carefully  moistened,  the  box  will  need  but  little  at- 
tention until  the  sprouts  are  ready  for  counting.  If  the  cloths  or 
other  materials  become  dry  before  the  seeds  germinate,  sprinkle 
over  the  surface.  The  germinating  box  should  be  kept  in  a  warm 
room  during  the  germinating  period.  The  temperature  of  the 
room  should  not  fall  below  50°  F. 

Counting  the  Sprouts. — The  kernels  should  begin  to  sprout 
about  the  fourth  day,  but  counting  should  not  be  done  until  about 

130     ' 


the  seventh  day.  By  this  time  the  shoots  should  be  1  to  IJ 
inches  long.  If  the  six  kernels  in  any  one  square  show  six  good 
healthy  sprouts,  the  ear  from  which  they  were  taken  should  be 
used  for  seed.  If  any  kernels  fail  to  germinate  or  show  weak 
sprouts  the  ear  should  be  discarded. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  138-140;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  72-75;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  49-51;  Nolan,  pp. 
197-200. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  253,  413,  537,  and  617; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  141. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Make  a  seed  testing  box  and  practice 
the  class  in  the  germinating  test.  (2)  Each  club  member  should 
prepare  a  germinating  box  and  test  the  corn  to  be  used  for  seed. 

Correlations. — Draw  and  describe  a  germinating  box  showing 
the  grains  of  corn  in  position. 

Arithmetic :  How  many  barrels  of  corn  per  acre  are  produced  at 
the  home  of  each  member  of  the  class.  If  by  testing  seed  corn  the 
yield  can  be  increased  one-fifth  or  20  per  cent,  what  would  be 
the  increased  yield  per  acre?    At  each  home? 

If  it  requires  10  hours  to  test  the  seed  corn  for  planting  10 
acres,  at  the  above  rate  of  increase  in  yield,  what  would  be  the 
value  of  each  hour  spent  in  making  the  test? 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:  Crops. 
Topic:  Red  Clover. 

Importance. — Red  clover  is  one  of  the  important  crops  of  Mary- 
land, especially  in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  the  State. 
Although  it  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  State,  it  does  not  succeed 
so  well  on  the  light  soils  of  southern  Maryland  and  of  the  Eastern 
Shore. 

Best  Soils  for  Red  Clover. — ^Although  red  clover  will  do  very 
well  on  any  soil  that  produces  good  corn,  yet  it  does  best  on  a  deep 
fertile  loam.  Clover  does  not  require  that  the  soil  be  well  sup- 
plied with  nitrogen  as  it  gathers  its  own  supply.  However,  ifc 
draws  heavily  on  the  phosphorus  and  potash  in  the  soil.  Good 
drainage  is  necessary  for  growing  clover  successfully. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — It  is  the  custom  in  Maryland  to  sow 
red  clover  in  February  or  March  on  land  seeded  to  grain  the  pre- 

131 


vious  fall.  Sowing  the  seed  on  snow  in  February  or  on  soil 
cheeked  by  freezing  in  March  usually  insures  a  good  stand. 
Where  clover  is  sown  alone  or  at  the  same  time  as, the  grain,  the 
seed  bed  should  be  prepared  thoroughly.  Although  the  seed  bed 
should  be  firm,  the  surface  should  be  finely  pulverized.  Newly 
plowed  land  should  be  disked  or  harrowed  with  heavy  harrows  to 
pack  the  soil  before  clover  seed  is  sown. 

Inoculation. — In  order  to  make  its  best  growth,  the  red  clover 
plant  must  be  supplied  with  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  or  germs 
on  its  roots.  In  sections  where  red  clover  has  been  commonly 
grown  inoculation  is  not  usually  necessary  for  the  soil  is  well  sup- 
plied with  the  proper  bacteria.  In  newly  settled  regions  or  in 
case  of  new  lands  where  it  is  desired  to  introduce  clover,  inocula- 
tion is  necessary. 

The  two  methods  of  inoculation  are:  (1)  The  application  of  soil 
from  fields  where  red  clover  has  been  grown,  and  (2)  the  pure 
culture  method.  Where  soil  is  transferred  from  one  field  to  an- 
other the  results  are  likely  to  be  more  certain  than  from  the  pure 
culture  method,  but  there  is  danger  of  introducing  noxious  weeds, 
insect  enemies  and  plant  diseases  where  soil  is  brought  in  from 
some  outside  locality.  This  should  be  carefully  guarded  against. 
A  small  amount  of  the  inoculated  soil  should  be  thoroughly  mixed 
with  the  seed  when  they  are  planted  and  additional  soil  at  the 
rate  of  200  or  300  pounds  to  the  acre  should  be  scattered  on  the 
land.  This  scattering  of  inoculated  soil  on  the  land  is  not  feasible 
where  it  cannot  be  disked  or  harrowed  immediately. 

The  pure  culture  method  of  inoculation  is  less  certain  as  to 
results,  but  it  is  more  easily  transported  and  it  is  free  from  the 
danger  of  introducing  harmful  pests  on  the  farm.  This  method 
may  be  carried  out  in  two  ways:  (1)  A  bottle  of  pure  culture  is 
added  to  a  convenient  amount  of  water  and  this  mixed  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  soil.  The  heated  soil  is  then  scattered  on 
the  land  and  harrowed  in.  (2)  The  pure  culture  is  added  to  a 
convenient  amount  of  water  and  with  this  the  seed  are  moistened. 
Allow  the  seed  to  dry  and  plant  immediately. 

Fertilizers  for  Red  Clover. — The  crop  ordinarily  succeeds  by 
utilizing  the  fertilizer  that  has  been  used  in  connection  with  the 
preceding  crops  or  with  the  grain  crop  growing  on  the  land. 
Where  the  soil  is  lacking  in  fertility  it  is  well  to  top  dress  the  land 
with  several  loads  of  manure  previous  to  the  time  of  seeding.     If 

132 


manure  is  not  available  commercial  fertilizer  containing  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  should  be  used  in  liberal  quantities.  Clay 
soils  may  need  only  200  pounds  of  bone  meal  or  250  pounds  of 
acid  phosphate,  but  light  sandy  soils  should  have  also  an  applica- 
tion of  50  to  100  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — The  common  practice  is  to  sow  red  clover 
on  land  that  was  planted  to  wheat  the  preceding  fall  or  sow  it  with 
spring  oats  or  barley.  When  sown  on  winter  wheat  the  freezing 
and  thawing  of  the  soil  usually  cover  the  seed  sufficiently.  When 
red  clover  is  sown  alone  the  seed  should  be  harrowed  in  well  to 
insure  a  stand,  unless  seeders  or  drills  are  used.  In  seeding 
clover  8  to  10  pounds  an  acre  are  usually  sufficient. 

Textbook  References. — Nolan,  pp.  208-211;  Buffum  and 
Deaver,  pp.  83-86;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  244-251; 
Davis,  pp.  104-106. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  455. 

Practical  Exercises. — Write  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture for  red  clover  inoculating  material.  Give  the  members  of 
the  class  practice  in  soil  inoculation  or  seed  inoculation.  Follow 
the  directions  accompanying  the  inoculating  material.  It  may 
be  best  to  go  to  some  nearby  farm  to  perform  this  exercise. 

Correlations. — Language:  Require  the  members  of  the  class  to 
write  out  statements  of  the  steps  employed  in  making  a  pure  cul- 
ture inoculation  of  red  clover  seed.  These  facts  should  be  copied 
in  the  class  note  book. 

Arithmetic :  Make  a  community  survey  as  to  the  number  of 
acres  being  seeded  to  clover  in  the  community.  Determine  the 
total  number  of  pounds  of  seed  used  in  the  community  and  find 
the  cost  of  the  seed  at  the  prevailing  price. 

LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  Rope. 
Topic:  Splices.  1 

End  Splice. — The  end  splice  is  used  to  keep  the  end  of  the  rope 
from  raveling,  and  to  form  a  convenient  and  firm  hand-hold.  To 
make  the  end  splice,  unravel  about  5  inches  of  the  end  of  the  rope 
(fig.  2,^),  then  holding  the  rope  in  the  left  hand  take  the  right  hand 

^  Three-eighths  inch  rope  is  a  convenient  size  to  use  in  this  work. 

133 


strand  and  pass  it  around  the  middle  strand.  The  left  hand  strand 
is  then  laid  across  this  loop;  the  middle  strand  is  then  passed  over 
the  left  hand  strand  and  down  through  the  loop  made  by  the  right 
hand  strand,  B.     This  part  of  the  splice  is  finished  by  drawing 


A  0        ^ 

Fig.  2.    End  Splice. 

the  strands  down  tightly.  Each  strand  should  now  point  toward 
the  main  part  of  the  rope.  The  next  step  is  the  weaving  of  the 
ends.  This  is  done  by  crossing  the  strand  lying  next  to  the  ends 
and  under  the  next   strand.     About  one-fourth  of  the   strand 


Fig.  3.    Short  Splice. 


should  be  removed  before  each  operation.    The  process  should  be 
continued  until  all  of  the  ends  are  neatly  woven,  C 

Short  Splice. — Unravel  about  10  inches  of  the  rope  and  place 
the  ends  together  tightly  (fig.  3,  ^)  so  that  each  strand  will  lie  be- 

134 


tween  two  strands  from  the  opposite  direction.  In  order  that  the 
rope  may  be  held  in  place  twist  two  of  the  pairs  of  strands  together. 
The  third  pair  should  now  be  tied  with  an  over-hand  knot,  and 
each  end  woven  once  under  the  corresponding  alternate  strand 
as  was  done  in  the  end  splice  (fig.  S,  B).  Repeat  the  same  opera- 
tion with  each  of  the  two  remaining  pairs  of  strands  (fig.  3,  C). 
The  splice  is  finished  by  simply  weaving  in  the  ends  and  removing 
a  part  of  the  strand  before  each  operation  (fig.  3,  D).  The  short 
splice  may  be  used  in  repairing  any  rope  that  is  not  to  be  used 
over  a  pulley. 


Fig.  4.    Lonq  Splice. 


Long  Splice. — The  long  splice  (fig.  4)  is  made  in  repairing  a 
rope  that  is  to  be  used  in  connection  with  pulleys,  as  in  the  repair 
of  a  hay  rope.  Open  out  the  strands  of  the  rope  to  a  length  of 
18  inches  for  a  half-inch  rope  and  about  36  inches  for  an  inch  rope. 
Place  the  two  ends  together  so  that  the  strands  from  each  end  of 
the  rope  alternate,  then  twist  together  two  adjacent  pairs  as  was 
done  in  the  short  splice.  Begin  the  splicing  by  untwisting  the 
loose  end  of  the  left  and  neatly  laying  the  loose  end  from  the  right 
in  its  place.  Continue  this  until  about  10  inches  of  the  right- 
hand  end  is  left.  The  next  step  is  to  tie  an  over-hand  knot  and 
then  weave  in  the  two  ends,  removing  some  of  the  fibers  before 
each  operation.     Repeat  the  operation  with  one  of  the  other  pairs 

135 


of  strands,  finishing  on  the  right-hand  side.  The  splice  is  com- 
pleted by  weaving  in  the  remaining  pair  of  strands  at  the  central 
point.  When  complete  the  rope  should  be  the  same  size  at  the 
point  of  repair  as  elsewhere. 


Q    C 


Fig.  5.    Eye  Splice 


Loop  Splice 


Eye  Splice. — The  eye  splice  (fig.  5)  is  used  at  the  end  where  a 
permanent  loop  is  desired.  It  is  made  by  unfolding  the  strands 
of  the  end  of  the  rope  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  the  end  splice  and 
then  weaving  them  into  the  main  part  of  the  rope  at  a  selected 

136 


point.  The  point  of  splicing  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  loop 
desired.  The  details  of  the  weaving  in  of  the  strands  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  other  splices.  It  gives  greater  strength  to  the  eye 
splice  to  weave  each  strand  several  times  before  removing  any  of 
the  fibers. 

Loop  Splice.-^The  splice  (fig.  6)  is  similar  to  the  eye  splice 
except  that  it  is  made  at  a  point  in  the  rope  other  than  the  end. 
This  splice  is  used  in  making  the  rope  halter.     To  make  the  loop 


Fig.  7.    Rope  Halter. 


splice  raise  a  single  strand  in  the  rope  at  the  point  desired  and 
pass  an  end  of  the  rope  under  the  strand  so  that  the  direction  of 
the  strands  will  be  parallel.  Then  raise  a  strand  in  the  loop  in 
the  part  just  passed  under  the  single  strand  and  on  the  same  side, 
and  pass  the  other  end  through.  When  finished  the  double 
strands  will  lie  parallel. 

Rope  Halter. — To  construct  a  rope  halter  (fig.  7)  use  about  12 
feet  of  five-eighths  inch  rope.  At  one  end  construct  a  loop  splice 
and  an  end  splice  so  that  they  are  about  7  inches  apart.     If  de- 

137 


sired,  the  other  end  may  be  finished  with  an  end  splice  or  a  whip- 
ped end.  To  adjust  this  halter,  place  the  main  part  of  the  rope 
over  the  head  of  the  animal  and  down  through  the  eye  splice; 
then  pass  it  through  the  loop  splice  and  draw  it  up  to  the  size  gf 
the  animal's  head.  The  part  of  the  rope  between  the  eye  splice 
and  the  loop  splice  passes  over  the  animal's  nose. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  the  pupils  bring  pieces  of  rope  to 
school  and  practice  in  making  the  loops  described  in  the  fore- 
going lesson. 

Correlations.— Drawing:  Make  sketches  of  the  loops  made  by 
the  pupils.  Geography:  From  what  materials  are  ropes  made? 
Where  are  those  materials  grown?  Locate  these  counties  on  the 
map.  Name  other  fiber  crops  and  locate  the  states  and  coun- 
tries in  which  they  are  grown. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Horticulture. 
Topic:  Pruning. 

Pruning  is  one  of  the  most  important  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
interesting  phases  of  orchard  management.  Knowledge,  experi- 
ence, close  observation  and  common  sense  are  essential  elements 
of  its  successful  practice. 

Objects  of  Pruning. — If  intelligently  performed  pruning  has 
one  of  the  following  objects  in  view: 

(1)  To  train  the  tree  to  some  desired  form  or  shape.  The  vari- 
ous orchard  operations  must  be  performed  and  the  trees  must  be 
so  shaped  that  they  can  best  carry  their  loads  of  fruit.  Sunlight 
is  essential  to  the  coloring  of  the  fruit.  The  tree  should  be  so 
shaped  that  the  greatest  amount  of  sunlight  may  be  admitted  to 
all  its  parts. 

(2)  To  increase  or  maintain  the  vigor  of  the  tree.  By  remov- 
ing a  part  of  the  branches  the  number  of  growing  points  or  buds 
is  reduced.  This  enables  the  remaining  buds  to  grow  more  vig- 
orously. This  is  best  accomplished  by  pruning  while  the  tree  is 
dormant. 

(3)  To  induce  fruitfulness.  Young  vigorous  growing  trees 
often  continue  to  use  up  all  their  energy  in  wood  growth  long 
after  they  should  be  expending  a  part  of  it  in  fruit  production. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  pinching  or  cutting  back  the  termi- 

138 


nal  buds  during  the  growing  season.  The  best  results  will  be 
obtained  if  it  is  done  just  after  the  growing  season  has  reached 
its  maximum  and  is  starting  on  the  decline. 

(4)  To  prevent  some  impending  evil  to  the  tree,  to  check  or 
eliminate  disease.  Dead  or  dying  branches  should  be  promptly 
removed.  They  are  useless  and  more  or  less  endanger  the  well 
being  of  the  tree. 

Season  for  Pruning. — The  milder  kinds  of  pruning  like  pinch- 
ing, disbudding,  and  cutting  young  shoots  and  the  removal  of 
injured  branches  may  be  done  whenever  the  necessity  is  appar- 


PTT^^ 


Fig.  8.    Improper  Cut. 

ent.  The  regular  annual  pruning,  however,  is  usually  most  ad- 
vantageously done  during  the  dormant  period.  Late  winter  and 
early  spring  is  usually  the  most  convenient  and  desirable  time. 
In  the  case  of  grapes  and  other  plants  that  are  likely  to  bleed  from 
wounds  the  pruning  should  be  done  before  the  sap  starts  to  flow. 
In  starting  to  prune  your  trees  do  not  start  at  the  bottom  and 
prune  upward  and  outward  along  the  branches.  This  is  the  most 
common  mistake  and  its  effects  are  hard  to  overcome.  This  pro- 
duces long  bare-limbed,  top-heavy  branches.     It  forces  all  the 

130 


growth  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  making  them  too  long  and 
too  dense  at  the  ends.  By  commencing  at  the  top  and  pruning 
inward  to  side  branches  the  top  becomes  open  and  sunlight  is 
admitted. 

Where  and  How  to  Make  and  Treat  the  Cut  in  Pruning.— 
Since  the  movement  of  prepared  food  is  from  the  leaves  towards 
the  roots  it  follows  that  when  the  branch  is  cut  off  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  trunk  (fig.  8)  the  wound  cannot  heal  unless  there 
are  leaves  beyond  the  wound  to  make  a  growth  current  possible. 


Fig.  9.    Proper  Cut. 

The  cut  should  therefore  be  made  close  enough  to  the  supporting 
member  (fig.  9)  so  that  it  can  be  healed  from  the  cambium  of 
the  latter.  There  is  usually  a  more  or  less  distinct  swelling  about 
the  base  of  a  branch.  A  branch  cut  off  just  above  this  swelling 
or  ring  will  usually  heal  promptly,  but  if  the  cut  is  made  much 
farther  out  it  will  not.  It  is  important  that  the  wound  should 
not  be  larger  than  accessary,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  generally 
best  to  make  the  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  branch.     In  cutting  off 

X4i) 


large  linibs  it  is  best  to  cut  a  way  into  the  limb  from  the  bottom. 
If  it  is  attempted  to  saw  through  the  limb  from  the  upper  side 
the  weight  is  likely  to  split  the  branch  and  injure  the  supporting 
member. 

Wounds  so  large  fchat  they  cannot  heal  promptly  should  be 
painted  with  a  good  oil  paint.  White  lead  is  preferable,  and,  if 
desired,  enough  sienna  may  be  added  to  make  the  paint  about 
the  color  of  the  bark. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  189-192;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  83-88;  Nolan,  pp.  221-225. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  181,  471,  491,  and 
632;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  72,  92, 
130,  144,  159,  and  178. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Take  the  class  to  a  nearby  orchard  and 
observe  the  work  in  pruning.  An  engagement  should  have  been 
made  previously  with  the  owner.  If  possible,  have  the  county 
demonstration  agent  meet  the  class  at  the  orchard.  (2)  Plants 
growing  on  the  school  ground  should  be  pruned  by  the  pupils 
of  the  class  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher,  an  experienced 
farmer,  or  the  county  demonstration  agent. 

Correlations. — Drawing  and  Language:  Make  drawings  of 
proper  and  improper  cuts  in  pruning.  Describe  and  make  draw- 
ings of  pruning  implements. 

LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:  Poultry. 

Topics-  ^^^^  Saving  Eggs  for  Incubation; 
*  \  (2)  Preserving  Eggs  for  Use. 

Collecting  Eggs  for  Incubation. — Eggs  that  are  to  be  used  for 
incubation  should  be  very  carefully '  handled.  They  should  be 
gathered  several  times  daily  both  in  warm  or  cold  weather.  Of- 
tentimes poor  hatches  are  obtained  because  the  eggs  or  some  of 
them  have  been  chilled  when  in  the  nest  or  they  have  been  kept 
warm  all  day  by  the  laying  hens  and  incubation  started. 

Eggs  have  a  thin  substance  on  the  shell  called  "bloom"  which 
should  be  harmed  as  little  as  possible  while  the  eggs  are  handled 
before  incubation.  If  clean  nests  are  provided  little  trouble  should 
be  had,  but  if  the  eggs  become  dirty  and  have  to  be  washed  the 
shells  are  injured  and  will  not  keep  so  well.     If  possible,  select 

141 


only  naturally  clean  eggs  for  hatching.  Where  they  are  only 
slightly  soiled,  clean  carefully  only  the  part  that  needs  it.  Under 
no  circumstances  should  dirty  eggs  be  set.  If  you  have  to  set 
washed  eggs,  do  not  keep  them  longer  than  necessary. 

Selecting  Eggs  for  Incubation. — Select  only  well-shaped  eggs 
for  hatching  for  in  time  this  selection  will  give  fowls  that  will 
lay  a  better  shaped  egg.  Another  reason  is  that  ill-shaped  eggs 
do  not  often  hatch.  These  poor-shaped  eggs  are  usually  caused 
by  some  abnormal  condition  of  the  hen'.s  egg  organs  which  injure 
the  contents  as  well  as  the  shell  structure.  Abnormally  large 
eggs  or  very  small  ones  do  not  usually  hatch  well,  and  double- 
yolked  ones  seldom  hatch.  Some  select  a  certain  shaped  egg- 
thinking  that  pullets  will  hatch  from  them,  but  there  is  nothing 
in  it.  Round  eggs  do  not  always  hatch  pullets  nor  long  ones 
hatch  cockerels. 

Care  of  Eggs  for  Incubation. — Eggs  for  incubation  should  be 
set  as  soon  as  possible  after  laying.  As  soon  as  they  have  been 
laid  they  start  to  dry  out  and  normal  chicks  cannot  be  hatched 
from  them.  If  they  are  kept  in  a  good  dry  place  they  often  give 
good  results  when  saved  a  week  or  ten  days,  but  there  is  consid- 
erable risk  in  saving  them  longer  than  ten  days.  Often  when 
eggs  from  good  strong  stock  are  set  apparently  good  hatches  are 
obtained  from  eggs  kept  three  or  four  weeks,  but  the  chicks  would 
be  stronger  and  better  if  the  eggs  had  been  fresher. 

Keep  the  eggs  in  a  cool,  clean,  not  too  dry  place,  while  awaiting 
incubation.  Incubation  starts  when  the  temperature  gets  much 
above  70°  F.  which  is  the  temperature  of  most  living  rooms.  A 
good  clean  cellar  is  usually  a  suitable  place  in  which  to  keep  eggs 
for  hatching.  A  temperature  of  between  40  and  50  or  60  degrees  is 
good.  If  the  room  is  naturally  very  dry  you  might  set  some  water 
in  shallow  pans  near  the  eggs.  Eggs  kept  in  dirty  places  often  get 
molds  or  bacteria  on  them  which  injure  the  young  chicks  when 
they  hatch. 

Some  claun  that  eggs  for  hatching  should  be  turned  daily,  but 
if  they  are  only  saved  a  few  days  this  is  hardly  necessary.  When 
they  are  saved  more  than  a  week  it  is  probably  wise  to  turn  them 
occasionally.  Where  large  numbers  are  to  be  kept  they  can  be 
put  into  an  ordinary  egg  crate  arid  this  can  be  turned  over  each 
day.  Regular  egg  cabinets  with  facilities  for  turning  are  on  the 
market  and  are  used  by  some. 

142 


Time  to  Select  Eggs  for  Preserving. — The  proper  time  to  pre- 
serve eggs  for  future  use  is  during  the  spring  months  when  eggs 
are  plentiful  and  also  because  those  laid  in  the  spring  when  the 
hens  are  in  good  condition  keep  better. 

Eggs  to  Select  for  Preserving. — Eggs  from  hens  which  do  not 
have  a  male  bird  running  with  them  (infertile  eggs)  will  keep 
better  than  fertile  eggs; 

Fresh  eggs  can  be  preserved  better  than  those  that  have  been 
laid  for  some  time.  Clean,  unwashed  eggs  keep  better  than  dirty 
or  washed  ones. 

Methods  of  Preserving  Eggs. — There  are  several  methods  of 
preserving  eggs  but  only  two  of  which  are  very  commonly  used. 
The  method  most  often  used  especially  by  the  large  dealers  is  the 
cold  storage  system.  Eggs  fresh  when  put  into  cold  storage  keep 
very  successfully  and  the  storage  men  seem  to  do  pretty  well  with 
ordinary  eggs.  There  is,  however,  a  very  large  annual  loss  from 
eggs  put  down  in  storage  because  they  were  not  cared  for  properly 
by  producers  and  handlers.  Most  farmers  and  egg  producers 
cannot  have  cold  storage  plants  of  their  own  but  can  often  have 
their  eggs  stored  at  a  nominal  cost  in  large  storage  plants  in  the 
cities. 

Many  eggs  are  put  down  for  home  use  each  spring  in  a  solution 
of  water  glass  (sodium  silicate).  This  is  a  very  simple  method 
and  usually  a  Very  successful  one.  The  solution  is  made  up  of 
nine  parts. water  which  has  been  previously  boiled  and  allowed  to 
cool,  and  one  part  of  water  glass,  by  measure.  This  is  put  into 
an  earthen  crock  or  wooden  vessel  and  the  eggs  put  in,  being  sure 
that  there  is  at  least  two  inches  of  the  solution  above  the  eggs. 
A  tight  cover  of  some  kind  can  be  put  on  or  a  film  of  paraffin  can 
be  floated  over  the  top  to  keep  down  evaporation.  The  whole 
should  be  put  in  a  cool  place  like  a  cellar  until  ready  for  use. 
A  new  preservative  in  powdered  form  has  recently  come  on  the 
market.  When  dissolved  according  to  directions  the  same  water 
glass  solution  mentioned  above  is  obtained. 

Teachers*  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  287,  528,  and  562; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Make  an  egg  tester  similar  to  the  one 
described  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  562  and  give  the  pupils  practice 
ia  testing  eggs.  A  few  eggs  should  be  brought  to  school  by  each 
member  of  the  class  for  the  purpose.     (2)  Require  the  mem.bers 

143 


of  the  class  to  report  in  writing  as  to  the  methods  employed  at 
their  homes  in  collecting  and  keeping  eggs  for  incubation  and  for 
home  use.  All  club  members  should  select  or  purchase  eggs  for 
their  poultry  project. 

Correlations. — Language:  Describe  the  egg-testing  equipment 
prepared  by  the  pupils. 

Drawing:  Make  drawings  of  different  eggs  as  they  appear  when 
examined  in  the  tester. 

LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:  Gardening. 

(1)  Preparing  the  Hotbed. 


T^odIcs  • 

'  ^  (2)  Preparing  Soil  and  Planting  Vegetables. 

Advantages  of  Hotbeds. — (1)  Delicate  plants  may  be  started 
early  without  danger  of  loss  by  frosts.  (2)  The  presence  of  weeds 
makes  it  difficult  to  cultivate  small,  delicate  plants.  This  may 
be  overcome  by  starting  the  plants  in  the  hotbed  and  transplant- 
ing them  after  they  have  attained  sufficient  size.  (3)  Garden 
crops  placed  on  the  market  before  their  regular  season  bring  a 
higher  price.  It  is  possible  to  produce  very  early  vegetables  by 
starting  them  in  a  hotbed.  (4)  By  growing  plants  to  consider- 
able size  in  a  hotbed  it  is  possible  to  avoid  injury  from  insects  or 
plant  diseases. 

The  Location  of  Hotbeds. — (1)  A  hotbed  should  be  near  a 
water  supply.  (2)  It  should  be  convenient  to  the  garden  and 
farm  buildings.  (3)  Protection  from  cold  winds  is  essential. 
Such  protection  may  be  provided  by  buildings,  hedges,  or  board 
walls.  (4)  South  or  southeastern  well-drained  exposures  are 
preferable. 

A  Temporary  Hotbed. — This  is  the  type  of  bed  most  commonly 
used  on  the  farm.  Make  an  excavation  of  6  or  8  inches  and  as 
large  in  area  as  desirable.  Use  well  rotted  stable  manure  to  fill 
the  excavation  and  spread  the  manure  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground  so  that  it  will  have  in  all  a  depth  of  16  to  20  inches.  The 
manure  should  be  thoroughly  packed,  and,  if  necessary,  should 
have  leaves  or  straw  mixed  with  it  to  prevent  its  being  soggy. 
After  the  surface  of  the  manure  has  been  leveled,  the  frame  should 
be  placed  in  position. 

144 


^  The  frame  should  be  of  proper  size  to  carry  the  sashes.  The 
rear  board  of  the  frame  should  be  4  to  6  inches  higher  than  the 
front  board  to  enable  the  glass  to  drain  well  and  to  enable  the 
rays  of  the  sun  to  strike  more  directly.  After  the  frame  is  placed 
in  position  the  manure  should  be  piacked  around  the  boards  on 
the  outside  and  a  layer  of  3  to  5  inches  of  rich  garden  soil  should 
be  placed  over  the  manure  within  the  frame  (fig.  10).  As  the 
temperature  of  the  bed  will  run  quite  high  for  three  or  four  days, 
no  seeds  should  be  planted  within  that  length  of  time. 


Fig.  10.     A  Suitable  Frame  for  a  Hotbed  or  a  Cold  Frame. 


The  hotbed  should  be  covered  with  glass.  Sashes  of  standard 
size  are  made.  These  are  usually  3  feet  by  6  feet.  During  ex- 
tremely cold  weather  the  frames  should  have  additional  covering, 
such  as  burlap,  straw  mats  or  old  carpet.  This  extra  protection 
is  necessary  especially  on  extremely  cold  nights.  During  the 
warmer  days  it  is  necessary  to  raise  the  sashes  for  ventilation. 

Permanent  Hotbed. — The  heat  for  the  permanent  bed  may  be 
provided  by  fermenting  manure,  a  stove,  a  brick  flue,  or  by  means 
of  steam  or  hot  water  heated  pipes  radiating  from  a  dwelling  or 
other  heating  plant.     Manure  is  more  commonly  used  on  farms. 

145 


For  a  permanent  bed  in  which  manure  is  to  furnish  the  heat,  a 
pit  24  to  30  inches- in  depth  should  be  provided.  The  sides  and 
ends  of  the  pit  may  be  supported  by  brick  walls  or  by  a  lining  of 
2-inch  plank  held  in  place  by  stakes.  The  pit  should  be  packed 
level  full  of  manure.  The  frame  should  be  placed  around  the 
boards  on  the  outside.  A  layer  of  3  to  5  inches  of  rich  garden 
soil  should  be  placed  over  the  manure  on  the  inside  of  the  frame. 
After  three  or  four  days  the  bed  is  ready  for  the  planting  of  seed. 
Beds  should  be  watered  only  in  the  mornings  of  bright  days. 

Preparing  Soil. — FertiHzer  in  liberal  quantities  should  be  dis- 
tributed over  the  garden  and  plowed  under  as  soon  as  the  soil  is 
in  proper  condition.  After  the  soil  has  been  turned  harrow  it 
often  to  keep  it  in  a  finely  pulverized  state.  If  well-rotted  manure 
is  not  available,  commercial  fertilizer  rich  in  available  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  should  be  used.  Unless  the  soil  is  very  rich  ten 
to  twelve  loads  of  manure  or  1000  to  2000  pounds  of  commercial 
fertilizer  should  be  used  per  acre. 

Planting. — Start  in  the  hotbed  cabbage  and  lettuce.  In  south- 
ern Maryland  peas,  potatoes,  onions,  parsnips,  and  radishes  may 
be  planted  in  the  open. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  174-177;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  91-96;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  154-156;  Nolan, 
pp.  167-168,  and  238-240. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  255  and  647;  Mary- 
land Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  126. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Have  the  pupils  make  a  temporary 
hotbed  for  the  school.  Sow  seeds  to  start  plants  in  the  school 
garden.  (2)  Require  each  member  of  the  class  to  submit  a 
written  report  in  the  construction  of  the  hotbed  used  at  home  of 
each. 

Correlations. — Language :  Written  work  is  provided  for  by  the 
reports  required  in  the  practical  exercises. 

Drawing:  Outline  a  hotbed. 

Arithmetic:  Develop  problems  on  the  cost  of  hotbed,  frames 
and  sashes  used  at  the  homes  of  the  pupils.  Have  pupils  report 
the  dimensions  of  hotbeds  as  a  basis  for  these  problems. 

If  each  plant  occupies  a  space  IJ  inches  square  in  the  hotbed, 
determine  the  number  of  plants  that  may  be  started  in  the  various 
hotbeds  reported  by  the  pupils.  Find  the  number  of  plants  that 
could  be  started  in  a  hotbed  6  feet  by  9  feet. 

146 


LESSON  SEVEN. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions 

Soil. — Do  all  the  plowing  possible  this  month.  A  great  deal 
of  plowing  can  be  done  in  southern  Maryland,  and  if  the  weather 
is  open,  some  should  be  done  in  northern  and  western  Maryland, 
(^lean  up  the  land,  open  all  ditches  and  lay  out  new  ones.  Place 
orders  for  lime  and  fertilizers.  Continue  to  broadcast  manure 
on  the  land. 

Crops. — Sow  red  clover  seed.  In  southern  Maryland  oats 
should  be  planted  if  there  is  a  period  of  open  weather.  Test  seed 
corn. 

Horticulture. — Prune  the  orchards  and  small  fruits.  Plant 
shrubbery  and  top-dress  the  lawn  with  manure.  Prepare  hotbeds 
and  sow  cabbage,  lettuce,  and  p(!pper  seeds  in  the  hotbed.  In 
southern  Maryland  plant  in  the  open  onions,  potatoes,  radishes, 
parsnips  and  spinach.  Fertilize  the  garden  well  and  prepare 
seed  beds  for  later  planting. 

Farm  Animals. — Get  the  horses  ready  for  the  rush  of  work  chat 
is  coming  on  later.  Gradually  increase  the  feed  and  groom  the 
animals  well. 

Milk  cows  should  be  fed  well  this  month.  A  good  flow  of  milk 
should  be  kept  up  until  the  spring  pastures  are  ready.  If  the 
flow  is  permitted  to  drop  off  at  this  time  it  will  be  difficult  to 
increase  it  later. 

Clean  and  whitewash  poultry  houses.  Eggs  that  are  to  be 
used  for  incubation  should  be  carefully  collected  and  tested.  Ex- 
ercise care  in  keeping  the  eggs.  Begin  to  set  hens  or  start  the 
incubator.  If  a  new  stock  of  poultry  is  to  be  introduced,  place 
an  order  for  eggs  this  month. 

Plans,  Improvements,  Repairs. — Keep  a  small  memorandum 
book  to  assist  your  memory  in  recalling  the  things  you  wish  to  do 
on  rainy  or  stormy  days.  This  book  may  be  used  for  noting  the 
expenditure  or  the  receipt  of  funds.  At  night  such  items  should 
be  entered  in  the  regular  book  used  for  keeping  farm  accounts. 
Do  not  neglect  the  bookkeeping.  By  giving  daily  attention  to 
this  important  matter  the  habit  soon  becomes  fixed.  Buy  time 
and  labor  saving  implements. 

Lay  out  and  grade  walks  around  the  house  and  barn.  Use  the 
split-log  drag  on  the  roads  and  driveways.     Install  conveniences 

147 


for  the  kitchen  and  the  house.     There  should  he  running  water 
in  every  farm  home. 

Repair  old  machinery,  plows,  harness,  buildings  and  fences. 
Every  farm  should  have  at  least  a  limited  equipment  of  black- 
smithing  and  harness-mending  implements.  These  save  both 
time  and  money. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  Nature  Study. 

Plants. — Take  the  dimensions  of  the  school  grounds  and  indi- 
cate the  locations  of  buildings  and  the  like.  Write  to  the  Mary- 
land Agricultural  College  giving  the  foregoing  facts  and  asking 
that  a  plan  showing  the  location  of  walks,  shrubbery,  flowers  and 
trees  be  prepared  for  your  school.  Secure  the  cooperation  of 
parents  and  friends  and  prepare  to  lay  out  walks  and  do  the  plant- 
ing suggested  in  the  plan  furnished  by  the  College. 

For  shades  silver  maple  and  weeping  willow  are  very  satisfac- 
tory. If  the  school  grounds  are  not  enclosed  with  a  fence,  privet 
makes  a  beautiful  hedge  and  a  substantial  enclosure.  There  are 
places  about  the  school  grounds  that  should  be  screened.  The 
snowball  is  a  beautiful  plant  and  well  suited  to  such  a  use.  For 
beds  and  borders  the  following  flowers  are  suitable :  Sweet  Wil- 
liams, pansies,  sweet  violets,  white  verbenas,  petunias  and  zinnias. 
Prepare  and  fertilize  the  soil  and  get  ready  to  plant  the  seed 
this  month  or  next. 

A  splendid  opportunity  for  plant  study  is  afforded  by  window 
boxes.  In  addition,  they  add  much  to  the  appearance  of  the 
schoolroom.  To  make  a  window  box  observe  the  following  di- 
rections : 

(1)  Secure  or  make  a  box  7  inches  deep,  8  to  10  inches  wide 
and  as  long  as  the  window  is  wide. 

(2)  Bore  several  small  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  box;  place 
over  these  broken  pieces  of  pottery  or  crockery,  then  a  half-inch 
layer  of  pebbles  or  small  stones.  Cover  these  with  an  inch  layer 
of  leaf  mold  or  fine  trashy  matter  and  finish  filling  the  box  with 
soil  consisting  of  one  part  pulverized  manure,  one  part  garden 
soil  and  one  part  sand. 

(3)  Water  thoroughly  and  let  stand  for  two  or  three  days,  and 
add  more  soil  if  it  settles. 

148 


(4)  When  tlic  soil  becomes  mellow  ao  that  it  falls  apart  when 
compressed  lightly  within  the  hand  it  is  in  right  condition  for 
planting  seed. 

(5)  Make  slight  depressions  about  2  inches  apart  with  the  edge 
of  a  straight  board.  Sow  any  of  the  following  kinds  of  seeds: 
petunias,  begonias,  pansies,  sweet  alyssum,  and  geraniums.  If  a 
variety  of  colors  and  flowers  is  desired,  sow  two  or  more  kinds. 

(6)  Water  frequently  in  the  late  afternoon  and  keep  the  box 
indoors  when  the  weather  is  very  cold. 

Animals. — Birds :  Make  a  list  of  all  the  birds  seen  in  the  com- 
munity this  month.  These  consist  of  permanent  residents  and 
winter  residents.  To  encourage  birds  to  visit  the  school  grounds 
the  pupils  should  collect  scraps  of  meat,  mixed  grarin  and  lunch- 
eon remnants  for  them.  Place  the  bird  food  in  convenient  places 
about  the  school  yard.  Study  ^he  birds  that  visit  the  grounds 
and  compare  them  with  the  list  made  out  in  October.  Answer 
these  questions:  What  birds  have  gone  South  for  the  winter? 
What  birds  have  remained  during  the  winter?  What  birds  have 
come  into  the  community  from  farther  North? 

Answer  the  following  questions  about  birds : 

1.  Of  what  does  the  birds'  clothing  consist? 

2.  How  are  the  feathers  arranged  on  a  hen's  back?  Breast?  Neck? 
(Have  a  hen  brought  to  class  for  study.) 

3.  Compare  a  feather  from  the  back  and  from  the  breast.  Note  the 
difference. 

4.  Are  both  ends  of  a  feather  alike?     How  do  they  differ?    Why? 

5.  Are  some  feathers  all  fluff  or  ''down?"  . 

6.  At  what  age  are  the  feathers  of  a  bird  all  "down?"  How  are  they 
protected  from  the  winter  at  this  age? 

7.  What  is  a  pin  feather? 

8.  How  does  a  hen  oil  her  feathers  Where  does  she  get  the  oil?  Why 
does  she  oil  her  feathers?    Have  you  seen  a  hen  or  bird  oiling  her  feathers? 

9.  Make  a  list  of  materials  being  eaten  by  birds  at  this  season. 

Wild  Mammals. — A  study  of  the  cottontail  is  important  at  this 
time  since  it  is  likely  to  be  damaging  orchard  trees  and  shrub- 
bery. When  snow  is  on  the  ground  and  food  is  scarce  the  cotton- 
tail often  eats  the  green  bark  of  young  fruit  trees.  Young  trees 
and  'shrubs  should  be  watched  closely,  and  if  it  is  evident  that 
they  are  being  injured  by  rabbits  the  trees  should  be  protected 
and  the  cottontails  destroyed.     Sheets  of  heavy  paper,  pieces  of 

149 


old  carpet  or  burlap  may  be  wrapped  around  the  body  of  a  tree 
as  a  means  of  protection.  Boy?,  with  dogs  and  guns  can  usually 
get  rid  of  the  cottontails.  Use  the  following  outline  in  studying 
the  cottontail : 

1.  Describe  the  cottontail's  track. 

2.  What  time  of  day  does  the  cottontail  move  about? 

3.  How  does  it  spend  the  day? 

4.  What  are  the  two  most  noticeable  parts  of  the  rabbit — ears,  hind 
legs? 

5.  How  does  the  rabbit  hold  its  ears — ^When  resting?  When  startled? 
When  locating  a  noise?    When  running? 

6.  How  does  the  rabbit  move  its  head  to  detect  an  odor? 

7.  Note  the  upper  lip,  the  teeth,  the  whiskers,  the  location  of  the  eyes, 
the  front  legs  and  the  hind  legs. 

8.  Describe  the  rabbit's  coat.    What  is  meant  by  a  rabbit  "freezing?" 

9.  What  kind  of  a  nest  (form)  has  the  rabbit? 

10.  Name  some  of  the  rabbit's  enemies.    How  does  it  evade  or  combat 
each? 

11.  What  do  rabbits  eat  at  this  season?    Have  some  member  of  the 
class  to  capture  a  rabbit  and  bring  it  to  school  for  study. 

12.  Compare  the  cottontail  with  the  gray  squirrel  and  the  field  mouse. 

References.— Farmers'  Bulletins  54,  369,  455,  496,  497,  506, 
609,  and  630. 

Correlations. — Language  work  is  provided  in  taking  notes  on 
the  work  done  and  the  observations  made  with  plants  and  ani- 
mals. 

Drawing:  Sketch  a  window  box.  Outline  the  feathers  taken 
from  the  different  parts  of  the  hen's  body.  Make  a  sketch  of  a 
cottontail  in  different  postures. 

LESSON  NINE. 

Subject:  School  Ground  Improvement. 
Topic:  A  Suggestive  Plan. 

Note:  The  accompanying  plan  and  planting  table  with  explanation  are 
given  as  a  suggestion  to  teachers  and  pupils  of  small  schools.  The  plan 
and  the  planting  table  should  be  carefully  studied  so  that  with  suitable 
modifications  it  may  be  adapted  to  the  local  school  grounds.  After  hav- 
ing studied  this  plan  very  carefully  the  teacher  and  pupils  should  make 
a  plan  for  their  own  grounds  and  with  the  cooperation  of  the  patrons  lay 
out  and  grade  walks,  secure  and  plant  trees  and  shrubbery,  and  fertilize 
and  seed  borders  and  beds.  Let  it  be  understood  that  this  is  no  small 
undertaking,  but  with  the  cooperation  of  teacher,  pupils  and  patrons  it 
can  be  accomplished.     The  result  will  be  an  attractive  school  ground, 

160 


happy  teacher  and  pupils  and  interested  patrons.  The  day  on  which  trees 
and  shrubbery  are  planted  should  be  made  quite  an  occasion.  The  work 
of  planting  should  be  interspersed  with  appropriate  songs,  recitations, 
and  talks.] 

P  '     > Eecf£r 


Plate  1. — Plan  for  School  Grounds. 


LIST   OP   PLANTS. 
Key  No.  Variety. 

1 Cydonia  japonic^,  (Japanese  Quince) 

2 Philadelphus  grandiflora  (Mock  Orange). . . 

3 Cornus  stolonifera  (Red  twigged  dogwood) 

4 Diewilla  Eva  Rathke  (Weigelia) 

5 Spirea  Van  Houttei  (Bridal  Wreath) 

6 Spirea  opulifolia  (Nine  bark) v 

7 Berberis  vulgaris  (Barberry) , 

8 Sambucus  canadonsis  (Elderberry) 

9 Viburnum  opulus  (Snowball) 

10 Syringa  vulgaris  (Lilac) 


No.  of 
Plants. 

4 
5 
7 
5 
7 
5 
3 
5 
4 
4 


151 


N9.  of 
Key  No.  Variety.  Plants. 

11 Spirea  Prunifclia  (Plum  leaved  spirae) 4 

12 Kerria  japonica  (Globe  Flower) 4 

13 Syniphoricarpus  vulgaris  (Coralberry) 3 

14 Berberis  thunbergia  (Japanese  Barberry) 8 

15 Hydrangea  paniculata  grandiflora  (Large  leaved  Hydran- 
gea)    6 

16 Spirea  (Anthony  Waterer) 5 

17 Rosa  Rugosa  (Japanese  Rose) 5 

18 Dentzia  gracilis  (Slender  Dentzia) 5 

19 Symphoricarpus  racemosa  (Snowberry) 4 

20 Dorthy  Perkins  Rose 2 

Trees  are  Norway  Maples,  already  planted. 

Planting  Suggestions. — In  the  hardy  borders  many  of  the  native 
plants  as  the  butterfly  weed,  asters,  ferns,  etc.,  may  be  planted. 
In  addition  these  borders  may  be  utilized  to  grow  many  of  our 
common  flowering  annuals  and  perenaials  from  seed.  Later 
these  can  be  planted  in  the  shrubbery  borders. 

Since  a  walk  is  to  be  of  service  mainly  during  inclement  weather, 
it  should  be  so  constructed  that  it  is  well  drained  and  provides 
good  footing  during  rainy  weather.  Where  sufficient  funds  are 
available  concrete  walks  should  be  laid.  Seldom  do  funds  permit 
of  such  construction.  Gravel  walks  properly  made  will  be  dry 
and  firm  for  a  long  period.  For  best  results  dig  out  to  a  depth  of 
one  or  two  feet  and  fill  in  with  boulders  and  rocks,  then  with  finer 
rocks  and  coarse  gravel.  Roll  and  tamp  thoroughly  so  that  all 
the  layers  will  be  compacted.  Where  gravel  cannot  be  procured 
cinders  may  be  used.  These  are  obtainable  at  practically  every 
school  ground.  Keep  the  surface  of  the  walk  nearly  flat  so  that 
there  is  just  a  slight  crown  to  shed  water. 

In  laying  the  walks  be  careful  to  see  that  no  basins  are  formed 
as  the  walks  go  through  the  low  places.  In  such  places  a  tile 
drain  should  be  placed  under  the  walk  so  that  the  water  may 
run  through  it  to  the  other  side. 

Paint  the  fences  and  outbuildings  some  harmonizing  color  as 
landscape  green,  or  gray.  See  that  they  are  kept  in  a  good  state 
of  repair. 

Various  climbers  may  be  planted  along  and  trained  to  the  fences. 
The  trumpet  creeper  and  woodbine  are  well  suited  for  such  plant- 
ing.    These  can  be  found  growing  wild  in  many  parts  of  the  State. 

Many  native  trees  and  shrubs  that  are  well  adapted  to  planting 
on  school  grounds  can  be  found  in  the  woods  near  by. 

162 


MARCH. 

Introduction. 

Teachers  should  constantly  bear  in  mind  the  importance  of 
supplementing  the  subject  matter  contained  in  these  lessons  with 
materials  found  in  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
Bulletins  and  Farmers'  Bulletins  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture.  These  publications  may  be  had  without  cost  so 
long  as  available  by  writing  to  the  Maryland  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, College  Park,  Md.,  and  to^the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Washington,  D.  C.  This  is  the  seventh  number  of  the 
monthly  series  of  lessons. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:  Soil. 

Topic:  Liming  the  Soil. 

Kinds  of  Lime. — Although  many  trade  names  are  given  to  lime, 
there  are  only  three  general  classes  of  lime;  namely,  burnt  lime, 
hydrated  (slaked)  lime,  and  ground  limestone  or  oyster  shells. 
Burnt  lime  is  obtained  when  either  limestone  or  oyster  shells  is 
heated  to  high  temperature.  Hydrated  (slaked)  lime  is  burned 
lime  with  enough  water  added  to  slake  it.  Ground  limestone  or 
ground  oyster  shells  is  the  raw  material  ground  to  a  powder 
without  further  treatment. 

The  Value  of  Lime. — Lime  supplies  plant  food;  it  acts  upon 
the  soil,  making  other  plant  food  available;  the  acidity  or  sourness 
of  the  soil  is  overcome  by  the  application  of  lime;  it  makes  heavy, 
clay  soils  more  porous  and  sandy  soils  more  compact. 

The  kind  of  lime  to  apply  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the 
relative  cost  of  the  different  forms.  The  principal  function  of 
lime  is  to  correct  acidity.  Any  form  will  do  this  but  it  requires 
practically  twice  as  much  ground  limestone  or  oyster  shells,  and 
one  and  one-fourth  times  as  much  slaked  lime  as  burned  lime  to 
do  the  same  amount  of  good.  The  effectiveness  of  ground  lime 
depends  upon  the  fineness  to  which  the  raw  material  is  ground. 

153 


There  is  no  material  difference  in  the  value  of  lime  derived  from 
limestone  Dr  oyster  shells.  The  kind  that  is  more  readily  avail- 
able at  less  expense  should  be  used. 

How  to  Apply  Lime. — The  method  of  spreading  lime  depends 
upon  the  kind  used.  Lump  lime  may  be  placed  in  a  large  pile  to 
slake  and  then  spread  with  a  manure  spreader,  or  it  may  be 
placed  in  small  piles  over  the  field,  and  after  slaking  spread  with 
shovels.  If  the  latter  method  is  used,  20-pound  heaps  (one  peck) 
placed  20  feet  apart  each  way  or  one  bushel  placed  40  feet  apart 
each  way  will  provide  about  one  ton  an  acre.  The  small  piles 
slake  more  readily  than  the  larger  ones.  The  most  convenient 
way  to  distribute  ground  stone  or  slake  lime  is  with  a  lime  spreader. 
Never  mix  lime  with  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers.  The  lime 
should  be  applied  some  weeks  before  fertilizer  is  added  to  the  soil. 

Amounts  of  Lime  to  Apply.— It  is  generally  the  best  practice 
to  apply  not  less  than  one  ton  of  burnt  lime,  and  one  and  one- 
fourth  tons  of  slaked  lime  or  two  tons  of  ground  limestone  or 
oyster  shell  per  acre.  Such  an  application  need  not  be  given 
oftener  than  once  in  five  years  which  makes  the  cost  not  more 
than  50  cents  to  one  dollar  per  acre. 

When  to  Apply  Lime. — One  of  the  best  times  to  apply  lime  is 
just  after  the  land  has  been  plowed  for  the  corn  crop.  The  proc- 
esses required  in  preparing  good  seed  bed  and  in  cultivating 
the  corn  crop  thoroughly  mix  the  lime  with  the  top  layers  of  the 
soil  where  it  will  be  most  effective  in  overcoming  the  acidity  of 
the  soil.  In  the  fall  when  preparing  the  land  for  wheat  is  a  suit- 
able time  for  applying  lime. 

Textbook  References. — Nolan,  p.  152;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  p. 
29;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  315-318;  Davis,  pp.  75,  76. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  110  and  166;  Farmers'  Bulletin  77. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Place  a  small  piece  of  burnt  lime  on 
a  board  or  paper  until  it  crumbles  to  powder.  This  powder  is 
called  air-slaked  lime.  (2)  Place  a  second  lump  of  burnt  lime 
in  a  dish  and  wet  it  with  a  little  water  from  time  to  time  until 
it  heats  and  crumbles.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lime  slakes 
more  readily  when  water  is  applied.  Lime  should  be  slaked  be- 
fore applying  it  to  the  soil. 

Correlations. — Language:  Describe  what  takes  place  in  the 
foregoing  practical  exercises. 

154 


Arithmetic :  At  the  prevailing  prices  of  lime  find  the  cost  of 
applying  a  ton  an  acre  to  a  10-acre  field.  Develop  other  similar 
problems.  What  is  the  weight  of  a  barrel  of  lime?  What  is  the 
weight  of  a  bushel  of  lime?  How  many  bushels  of  lime  necessary 
to  apply  a  ton  an  acre  on  a  10-acre  field?  How  many  barrels  of 
lime  for  the  same  area? 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject;  Crops. 

1(1)  Begin  Preparations  for  Alfalfa  Planting. 
(2)  Fertilization  of  Grasses. 
(3)  Preparing  Seed  Beds. 

Crops  to  Precede  Alfalfa. — Preparation  should  be  made  at  this 
time  for  sowing  alfalfa.  The  best  time  to  sow  alfalfa  is  in  late 
summer  or  early  fall,  hence  the  necessity  of  planning  in  advance 
for  the  planting  of  this  important  crop.  The  best  crop  to  precede 
alfalfa  is  early  potatoes.  The  fertilizer  and  cultivation  neces- 
sary for  the  potatoes  put  the  soil  in  an  ideal  condition  for  alfalfa. 
After  the  potatoes  are  dug,  disking  or  harrowing  is  usually  all  that 
is  necessary  to  obtain  an  ideal  seed  bed.  If  a  heavy  growth  of 
weeds  has  taken  possession  of  the  land,  plowing  must  be  resorted 
to.  Cowpeas  and  soy  beans  are  excellent  for  preceding  alfalfa. 
On  fertile  soil  it  is  best  to  cut  the  crop  for  hay  and  prepare  the 
seed  bed  by  surface  working  as  in  the  case  of  potatoes.  If  the 
fertility  or  supply  of  vegetable  matter  is  low,  the  crop  should  be 
plowed  under  about  the  first  of  August.  The  seeding  gf  alfalfa 
should  not  be  done,  however,  until  after  the  land  has  had  time  to 
settle  sufficiently  to  insure  a  firm  seed  bed. 

Alfalfa  may  follow  wheat,  oats,  clover,  or  timothy.  The  land 
should  be  thoroughly  plowed  after  harvesting  and  worked  fre- 
quently until  time  to  seed  alfalfa. 

Applying  Fertilizers  to  Timothy  and  Alfalfa. — Timothy:  Ex- 
tensive tests  at  the  State  Experiment  Station  show  that  nitrate 
of  soda  and  acid  rock  phosphate  when  used  in  combination  give 
the  best  results.  The  proper  amount  to  use  depends  upon  the 
soil,  but  ordinarily  nitrate  of  soda  should  be  applied  at  the  rate 
of  150  to  300  pounds  per  acre  and  the  phosphate  at  the  same 
rate.  The  fertilizer  should  be  applied  in  the  spring  when  the 
grass  begins  to  green.  This  is  usually  the  latter  part  of  March 
or  the  first  of  April. 

155 


Alfalfa :  If  the  alfalfa  land  has  not  been  treated  with  an  abun- 
dance of  good  clean  manure  either  before  it  was  plowed  for  planting 
or  during  the  early  winter,  it  should  receive  in  early  spring  a  top 
dressing  of  300  to  500  pounds  of  acid  rock  phosphate  and  50  to 
75  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  per  acre. 

Seed  Beds. — All  lands  not  previously  plowed  should  be  turned 
this  month.  Fresh  plowed  land  should  be  disked  immediately. 
Sod  lands  that  were  plowed  in  the  fall  or  winter  should  be  kept 
in  good  tilth  by  disking.  The  work  expended  in  preparing  the 
soil  for  the  crops  brings  as  good  or  better  returns  than  any  work 
done  during  the  year. 

Textbook  References. — Seed  Bed:  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill, 
pp.  198,  205,  208,  and  210;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  46-48;  Nolan, 
pp.  272-277;  Davis,  pp.  70-73. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletin  118;  Farmers'  Bulletins  318,  339,  400,  414,  424,  and 
537. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Club  members  should  be  preparing 
their  seed  beds.  If  necessary,  lime  should  be  applied  to  corn 
land;  well  rotted  manure  should  be  applied  to  the  tomato  plats. 
(2)  Have  the  members  of  the  class  submit  written  reports  on  the 
kinds  of  implements  being  used  on  the  several  farms  in  the  prep- 
aration of  seed  beds. 

Correlations. — Language:  Written  reports  required  in  Exer- 
cise 2  furnish  suitable  language  work. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  cost  of  the  fertilizing  materials  to  be 
used  by  the  club  members  in  connection  with  their  projects. 

History :  Have  the  members  of  the  class  secure  information  as 
to  the  kinds  of  implements  that  have  been  used  in  the  commu- 
nity for  preparing  seed  beds.  Let  this  information  date  as  far 
back  as  reliable  and  be  concerned  with  turn  plows,  harrows,  and 
the  like. 

Geography:  The  Persians  were  the  first  nation  to  grow  alfalfa. 
The  Persians  carried  it  to  Greece.  From  Greece  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Italy,  then  into  Spain,  and  from  Spain  it  was  carried 
to  South  America  and  Mexico.  From  Mexico  it  was  brought  into 
the  United  States.     Locate  all  of  these  countries  on  the  map. 


156 


LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  The  Okchard. 
Topic:  Spraying. 

Apples  and  Pears. — If  the  trees  are  badly  infested  with  San 
Jose  scale  it  is  advisable  to  apply  the  first  spray  in  the  fall  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen.  For  this  purpose  lime  sulphur  may  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  to  9  gallons  of  water.  This  should 
be  repeated  in  the  spring  before  the  buds  open.  Unless  the  trees 
are  badly  infested  with  scale,  the  fall  spraying  may  be  omitted. 
For  the  spring  spraying  the  lime  sulphur  should  be  used  as  it 
helps  also  to  control  certain  fungus  troubles. 

The  next  spray  should  be  applied  within  a  week  after  the  petals 
fall.  This  is  the  most  important  spray  of  the  season,  and  should 
1)0  very  thoroughly  done.  Prepare  the  spray  as  follows:  Arse- 
nate of  lead  paste,  2  pounds;  commercial  lime  sulphur,  5  quarts; 
water,  .50  gallons.  This  is  a  combined  insecticide  and  ftmgicide, 
and  IS  primarily  directed  against  the  codling  moth.  The  oliject 
is  to  drive  the  spray  into  the  calyx  end  of  the  blossom  before  the 
calyx  closes,  for  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  young  worm  enters  the 
fruit.  The  spray  should  be  repeated  in  three  or  four  weeks,  ushig 
the  same  materials. 

These  four  sprayings  will  generally  give  the  apple  orchard  ample 
protection,  except  from  the  second  brood  of  the  codling  moth. 
Spray  for  this  brood  as  before,  between  July  1.5  and  August  1 . 
On  the  other  hand,  in  some  sections  it  may  become  necessary  to 
spray  several  times  in  addition  to  those  outlined. 

Peaches  and  Plums. — (1)  Spray  with  commercial  lime  sul- 
phur, usual  strength  (one  to  nine),  before  the  buds  swell.  This 
spray  is  directed  against  San  Jos^  scale,  brown  rot  and  leaf  curl. 

(2)  Spray  with  self-boiled  lime  sulphur  and  arsenate  of  lead 
when  the  young  peaches  are  shedding  their  husks  or  are  about  the 
size  of  the  end  of  the  thumb;  in  case  of  plums,  shortly  after  the 
fruit  has  set.  This  spray  is  directed  against  the  curculio  and 
brown  rot.  Repeat  this  spray  in  about  tea  days  or  two  weeks 
and  again  in  about  a  month  before  the  fruit  ripens,  leaving  out 
the  arsenate  of  lead  in  the  last  spray.  In  seasons  in  which  the 
brown  rot  is  bad  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  a  few  intermediate 
sprays. 


1.57 


The  commercial  lime  sulphur  should  not  be  confused  with  the 
self-boiled  lime  sulphur.  The  commercial  lime  sulphur  should 
not  be  used  on  the  stone  fruits  while  they  are  in  foliage.  The 
commercial,  or  concentrated  lime  sulphur  can  be  bought  ready- 
made;  the  self-boiled  cannot.  If  the  concentrated  product  is  to 
be  used  on  a  large  scale  it  can  be  more  economically  made  at 
home. 

FORMULA  FOR  CONCENTRATED  LIMB-SULPHUR. 

Rock  lime. 50  pounds. 

Sulphur 100  pounds. 

Water 50  gallons. 

Slake  the  lime  in  a  kettle  in  which  the  cooking  is  to  be  done, 
and  when  the  slaking  process  is  well  under  way  add  the  sulphur 
and  stir  thoroughly.  Add  enough  water  to  make  a  thin  paste 
until  the  sulphur  is  dissolved;  boil  one  hour.  After  boiling,  the 
concentrate  may  be  put  away  in  barrels.  The  barrels  should  be 
full  and  corked  tightly.  Prepared  this  way,  one  gallon  of  the 
concentrate  should  be  diluted  with  7  or  8  gallons  of  water,  de- 
pending upon  the  concentration  obtained. 

FORMULA  FOR  SELF-BOILED   LIME   SULPHUR. 

Sulphur. 8  pounds. 

Rock  lime 8  pounds . 

Water 50  gallons. 

Add  enough  water  to  start  the  lime  slaking  then  sift  over  the 
sulphur.  Keep  stirring  it  vigorously  until  it  becomes  a  thin 
paste.  Let  it  boil  only  a  few  minues  and  then  dilute  to  50  gal- 
lons of  water.  Strain  into  spray  barrel  and  use  immediately. 
If  an  insecticide  is  wanted,  add  2  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  paste 
or  one  pound  of  powdered  arsenate  of  lead. 

Textbook  References :— Nolan,  pp.  217-220,  259-262;  Davis, 
pp.  214-220,  223-236;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  130-133, 
141-142,  152-157. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  243,  440,  and  492; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  92,  144,  and 
159. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  members  of  the  class  to 
submit  written  reports  on  the  following  topics  as  observed  at  their 
homes:  (a)  The  kinds  of  spraying  equipment  used,  (b)  the  sprays 

158 


used  and  their  composition,  (c)  a  list  of  the  insects  and  plant  dis- 
eases attacking  fruits.  (2)  If  possible,  take  the  pupils  to  a  near- 
by orchard  where  trees  are  being  sprayed.  Have  the  pupils  take 
notes  on  (a)  the  purpose  of  the  spraying  process,  (b)  the  equip- 
ment used,  and  (c)  the  sprays  employed.  If  possible,  secure  the 
cooperation  of  the  owner  of  the  orchard  and  the  county  demon- 
stration agent  when  such  visits  are  made. 

Correlations. — Written  work  is  provided  in  the  practical  exer- 
cises. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  cost  of  the  spraying  materials  referred 
to  in  the  foregoing  lesson. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topic:  Incubation. 

The  Hen. — By  natural  incubation  is  meant  the  use  of  a  hen 
as  the  source  of  heat  for  hatching  eggs.  About  the  most  impor- 
tant thing  in  connection  with  natural  incubation  is  the  selection 
of  a  good  hen.  There  is  no  use  trying  to  set  Leghorns  especially 
if  they  have  to  be  moved  before  setting,  and  often  the  large  hens 
are  so  fat,  clumsy  and  lazy  that  they  do  not  do  well.  It  is  hard 
to  describe  a  h.en  well  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  incubation. 
You  simply  have  to  feel  that  a  hen  will  make  a  good  sitter  and 
mother.  She  should  be  healthy,  bent  on  sitting,  and  light  enough 
on  her  feet  so  she  will  not  break  up  the  eggs  or  crush  the  chicks. 

Care  of  the  Hen. — She  should  be  kept  free  from  lice  for  two 
reasons.  First,  she  will  not  sit  well  if  bothered  by  lice,  and 
second,  she  will  give  lice  to  the  young  chicks  after  they  have 
hatched.  If  she  is  thoroughly  dusted  with  lice  powder  two  or 
three  times  about  a  week  apart  the  lice  will  be  killed.  Dusting 
only  once  will  not  do  for  the  eggs  or  nits  will  hatch  later  and 
make  a  new  brood. 

The  Nest. — It  is  very  important  that  a  sitting  hen  have  a 
good  nest  (fig.  1)  in  a  quiet  place.  It  should  be  roomy  enough 
(fig.  2)  for  the  hen  to  be  comfortable.  The  nesting  material 
should  be  clean  and  of  some  soft  material,  and  not  made  so  deep 
that  the  eggs  will  pile  up,  nor  so  flat  that  they  will  roll  apart. 
If  the  hen  is  set  in  a  box  it  should  be  so  fixed  that  she  will  not 


159 


have  to  junip  down  on  the  eggs  when  entering  the  nest.  A  good 
way  to  make  a  nest  is  to  place  a  barrel  upon  its  side,  put  a  big 
piece  of  sod  or  earth  in  the  bottom  and  make  the  nest  on  top  of 
this,  being  sure  that  there  are  no  corners  left  for  the  eggs  to  roll 
into. 

Water  and  Feed  should  be  kept  near  the  hen.  Com  and 
wheat  or  corn  alone  is  sufficient  for  her  as  she  does  not  need  egg- 
producing  feed.  Provision  should  be  made  for  her  to  come  off 
to  exercise  for  if  she  does  not  she  will  soil  the  eggs  and  often  be- 
come lame  and  out  of  condition  herself.  A  sitting  hen  shut  up  in 
a  small  box  or  yard  should  be  let  out  once  each  day. 


Fig.  1.    Improper  Nest.    Sitting  Hen  Annoyed  bt  Laying  Hen. 


The  Number  of  Eggs  that  can  be  put  under  one  hen  varies  greatly. 
A  large  hen  naturally  can  cover  more  than  a  smaller  one.  A 
hen  can  keep  more  eggs  warm  in  warm  weather  than  in  cold.  She 
can  cover  more  small  eggs  than  large  ones.  It  is  better  to  put 
too  few  rather  than  too  many  under  one  hen.  When  too  many 
are  put  under  not  only  the  extra  eggs  but  the  whole  number  will 
suffer.  Thirteen  is  a  good  average  number  in  cold  weather  and 
fifteen  in  warm  weather.  When  very  valuable  eggs  are  being 
hatched  possibly  as  few  as  nine  or  ten  may  be  all  you  wish  to 
trust  to  one  hen. 

160 


Trjring  the  Hen. — Before  putting  the  eggs  in  the  nest  try  out 
the  hen  on  some  China  or  dummy  eggs  to  see  if  she  intends  to 
sit.  This  is  especially  desirable  if  the  hea  has  been  moved  to  a 
new  place.  The  best  time  to  move  a  broody  hen  is  after  dark. 
Nine  out  of  every  ten  hens  can  be  successfully  moved  if  properly 
done.  If  you  try  to  move  them  in  the  day  time  many  will  be 
broken  up. 


Fig.  2.    Interior  of  Sitting  Room  Showing  Proper  Kind  of  Nests. 


Testing  the  Eggs. — The  eggs  should  be  tested  on  the  seventh 
day  to  see  if  any  are  infertile  or  dead.  This  can  be  readily  done 
with  a  simple  egg  tester  (fig.  3)  and  a  lamp  at  night.  There  is 
no  use  for  a  hen  to  try  to  cover  infertile  or  dead  eggs.  When 
hatching  time  comes  the  nest  will  not  be  so  crowded  if  the  bad 
eggs  have  been  removed. 

If  any  of  the  eggs  become  soiled  or  dirty  through  eggs  being 
broken  in  the  nest  or  otherwise,  wash  them  with  warm  water  as 

161 


soon  as  possible.  Eggs  the  pores  of  which  are  clogged  with  dirt 
cannot  hatch  well. 

Advantages  of  Natural  Incubation. — (1)  The  hen  can  beat  any 
brooder,  (2)  less  work  in  small  flocks,  (3)  cheaper  with  small 
numbers,  (4)  resulting  stock  as  a  rule  stronger,  (5)  more  cer- 
tainty of  results  with  the  inexperienced,  as  much  of  the  respon- 
sibility is  turned  over  to  the  hen. 

Artificial  Incubation :  The  Incubator. — In  hatching  chicks  with 
an  incubator  only  a  good  reliable  incubator  should  be  used.  Do 
not  try  to  get  along  with  some  of  the  cheap  boxes  which  are 
called  incubators  and  sold  mainly  to  get  your  money.  A  good 
incubator  should  be  well  made,  should  have  a  double  wall  to  keep 
in  the  heat,  a  good  regulating  device  and  a  proper  means  of  tak- 
ing care  of  the  moisture  and  ventilating  problems. 

Locating  the  Incubator. — The  incubator  should  be  placed  in  a 
room  which  has  a  good  even  temperature.  If  the  temperature 
goes  way  up  during  the  day  and  way  down  during  the  night  you 
will  have  a  lot  of  trouble  regulating  the  incubator.  A  cool,  clean 
cellar  makes  a  nice  place  for  an  incubator.  Being  below  ground 
it  cannot  get  very  hot  during  the  day  nor  cold  at  night.  Some 
difference  is  made  in  insurance  premium  when  oil  incubators  are 
used.  An  extra  rate  is  charged  even  on  approved  incubators,  but 
on  incubators  not  approved  a  very  high  rate  is  charged.  For 
this  reason  it  is  often  desirable  to  operate  the  incubator  in  some 
outbuilding  if  one  is  available. 

Regulating  the  Incubator. — Most  beginners  at  operating  an 
incubator  are  too  anxious  to  get  the  eggs  in.  The  incubator  should 
be  run  empty  at  least  two  days  or  until  its  regulation  and  opera- 
tion is  thoroughly  understood.  Do  not  think  you  have  more 
intelligence  than  the  average  person  and  can  regulate  the  incu- 
bator with  the  eggs  in  it  for  you  will  fail  nearly  every  time. 

Follow  the  directions  of  the  man  who  made  the  incubator  until 
you  know  more  about  it  than  he  does.  If  you  have  confidence 
that  he  knows  how  to  make  an  incubator  you  should  also  have 
confidence  that  he  knows  how  to  operate  it. 

The  Lamp  must  be  filled  once  daily  for  it  does  not  hold  enough 
oil  to  run  two  days.  The  wick  should  be  trimmed  at  the  same 
time  the  lamp  is  filled.  If  this  work  is  done  in  the  morning  you 
will  have  all  day  to  get  the  flame  regulated. 


162 


FiQ.  3.    A  Simple  Egg  Tester. 


163 


Be  careful  of  smoky  lamps.  An  incubator  lamp  should  not 
be  allowed  to  smoke,  but  it  will  if  you  do  not  use  care.  If  good 
oil  is  used,  if  the  flame  is  not  too  high,  if  the  lamp  is  put  in  straight, 
and  if  the  wick  has  been  trimmed  properly, .  little  trouble  with 
smoking  should  occur.  Another  thing  that  sometimes  causes 
smoke  is  turning  the  wick  up  or  down  when  there  is  a  crust  or 
deposit  on  top  of  it.  If  it  has  been  some  time  since  the  wick  has 
been  trimmed  you  should  trim  it  again  before  adjusting  the  wick. 
Do  not  use  scissors  for  trimming.     Instead  use  a  piece  of  metal 


Fig.  4.     A  Good  Hatch. 


like  a  broken  thermometer  and  scrape  the  charred  part  off,  being 
sure  that  all  pieces  are  removed  from  the  burner  and  everything 
is  left  clean. 

The  Eggs  should  be  turned  twice  daily,  beginning  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  third  day.  Turn  them  as  nearly  twelve  hours  apart 
as  possible  and  always  turn  them  before  tending  the  lamp  as  oil 
from  the  hand  on  hatching  eggs  very  quickly  kills  them.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  turn  each  egg  over  but  simply  mixing  them  up 
and  gently  rolling  them  around  is  sufficient. 

164 


The  old  hen  puts  a  very  thin  fihn  of  oil  on  the  eggs  when  she 
sits  on  them  which  keeps  them  from  evaporating  too  much.  The 
incubator  cannot  do  this,  hence  the  moisture  problem  is  impor- 
tant in  artificial  incubation.  Some  incubators  have  moisture  ap- 
pliances but  most  operators  supply  moisture  whether  these  are 
present  or  not.  This  is  done  by  sprinkling  the  eggs  or  incubator 
with  warm  water  or  putting  in  wet  sponges.  If  moisture  is  sup- 
plied it  should  be  supplied  during  the  whole  period  of  the  hatch. 
Moisture  together  with  carbon  dioxide  helps  to  decompose  the 
shells  so  the  chicks  can  get  out. 

Testing  the  Eggs. — The  eggs  should  be  tested  the  seventh  day 
to  remove  the  infertile  eggs  and  dead  germs,  and  again  the  four- 
teenth day  to  take  out  any  others  that  die  later.  After  the 
eighteenth  day  the  incubator  should  be  closed  and  the  chicks 
allowed  to  hatch.  The  eggs  doliot  need  to  be  turned  after  this 
time. 

Care  of  the  Chicks. — When  the  chicks  begin  to  hatch  (fig.  4) 
cover  the  glass  door  in  front  with  a  piece  of  cloth  so  they  will 
not  tire  themselves  out  working  towards  the  light.  They  should 
])e  kept  quiet  until  they  gain  their  strength.  Do  not  be  in  too 
big  a  hurry  to  get  them  out.  They  will  do  better  in  the  incubator 
for  a  time. 

Advantages  of  Artificial  Incubation. — (1)  Necessary  where  large 
numbers  are  kept,  (2)  less  danger  from  certain  diseases,  like 
gapes,  also  from  lice,  etc.,  (3)  less  cost  of  feed,  (4)  less  work 
where  large  numbers  are  raised,  and  (5)  chicks  can  be  hatched 
any  season  of  the  year. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers^  Bulletin  585. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Each  member  of  the  class  who  is  not 
a  member  of  the  poultry  club  should  assume  the  care  of  one  or 
more  sitting  hens.  Arranging  the  nest,  setting  the  hen,  caring 
for,  feeding  and  watering  the  hens,  or  regulating  the  incubator, 
attending  the  lamp,  caring  for  and  testing  the  eggs  fUrnish  inter- 
esting practical  exercises  for  this  month.  (2)  Poultry  club  mem- 
bers should  set  their  hens  or  start  the  incubators.  They  should 
observe  the  instructions  given  in  the  foregoing  lesson.  (3)  Re- 
quire the  members  of  the  class  having  incubators  at  their  homes 
to  report  the  following  facts:  (a)  The  capacity  of  each  incubator, 
(b)  the  number  of  infertile  eggs  discarded  when  tested,  (c)  the 
number  of  chicks  hatched.     (4)  The  teacher  and  class  should 

165 


visit  a  farm  where  an  incubator  is  being  conducted  and  secure 
the  foregoing  facts. 

Correlations. — Language:  Written  work  is  provided  by  the 
reports  called  for  in  Exercise  3. 

Arithmetic:  From  the  facts  reported  in  Exercise  3  develop 
problems.  What  fractional  part  or  per  cent  of  the  eggs  was  in- 
fertile? What  part  or  per  cent  of  the  fertile  eggs  hatched?  What 
part  or  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  eggs  hatched? 

LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:  Farm  Animals. 

Topic :  Sow  and  Pig  Management. 

Care  and  Feed  of  the  Sow. — Many  farmers  have  their  sows 
farrow  during  the  months  of  March  and  April.  Since  the  weather 
is  often  severe  during  these  months  care  should  be  taken  to  pro- 
tect the  sow  from  cold.  Give  her  enough  straw  to  make  a  warm 
bed  but  not  so  much  as  to  allow  the  little  pigs  to  get  covered  and 
crushed.  The  sow  should  have  clean  water  but  nothing  else  for 
the  first  24  hours  after  the  pigs  arrive. 

Oq  the  second  day  a  thin  bran  mash  or  skim  milk  will  be  relished. 
Feed  moderately  for  the  first  week.  A  mixture  of  two  parts 
of  com  and  one  of  middlings  may  be  fed  in  increasing  amounts 
until  the  sow  is  eating  a  full  feed.  If  skim  milk  can  be  had  in 
addition  to  the  grain  there  is  nothing  better  to  make  the  sow  give 
a  full  flow  of  milk.  Another  good  grain  mixture  for  the  sow  at 
this  time  is  six  parts  of  corn  and  one  of  oil  meal.  If  skim  milk 
is  available  the  sow  will  do  well  on  four  pounds  of  milk  to  one  of 
corn.  A  full  grain  ration  for  a  day  should  never  be  more  than 
4  per  cent  of- the  sow's  live  weight.  If  the  sow  can  be  put  on 
alfalfa,  clover,  blue  grass  or  rape  pasture,  less  corn  will  be  required. 
A  corn  ration  of  about  2  per  cent  of  the  sow's  live  weight  with 
good  pasture  makes  a  cheap  and  adequate  supply. 

Care  and  Feed  of  the  Young  Pigs. — As  soon  as  the  little  pigs 
begin  to  eat  they  will  do  best  if  fed  additional  slop  in  a  separate 
pen  and  away  from  their  mother  and  the  larger  pigs.  This  can 
be  done  by  having  a  pen  or  a  lot  where  choice  clover  or  other  for- 
age crop  is  growing  to  which  the  pigs  may  have  access,  but  where 
the  opening  is  so  small  that  the  larger  pigs  cannot  pass  through. 
When  the  young  pigs  are  from  8  to  10  weeks  old  they  should  be 

166 


weaned.  This  often  causes  a  serious  check  in  their  growth  which 
should  not  be  so.  When  it  is  desirable  to  wean  the  pigs  put  the 
mother  in  a  pen  leaving  a  creep  for  the  pigs.  Feed  the  sow  spar- 
ingly; give  water  instead  of  slop  and  have  the  grain  ration  dry. 
While  the  sow  is  receiving  a  maintenance  ration  the  pigs  should 
be  fed  all  they  will  consume  without  waste.  A  ration  consisting 
of  such  feeds  as  skim  milk,  middlings,  com  and  green  forage  will 
satisfy  the  pigs'  appetites  and  simplify  the  weaning. 

Textbook  References.— Davis,  pp.  280-282. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  205  and  566;  Mary- 
land Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  150  and  185. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Pig  club  members  should  secure  a  pig 
and  begin  to  give  it  attention.  If  it  is  the  purpose  of  the  boy 
to  go  into  the  work  more  extensively,  he  should  now  have  a  sow 
aad  litter  of  pigs  to  care  for.  The  instructions  in  the  foregoing 
lesson  should  be  observed.  (2)  Male  members  of  the  class  that 
are  not  members  of  the  pig  club  should  assume  the  responsibility 
of  caring  for  one  or  more  pigs  during  the  year. 

Correlations. — Arithmetic:  Every  item  of  expense  in  connec- 
tion with  the  project  of  each  pig  club  member  should  be  kept. 
These  items  of  cost  may  be  made  the  basis  of  problems.  In  those 
projects  that  include  a  sow  and  litter  of  pigs  the  feed  of  the  sow 
(until  the  pigs  are  weaned)  as  well  as  the  feed  of  the  pigs  should 
be  taken  into  account. 

LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:  Gardening. 

1(1)  Transplanting; 
(2)  Planting  in  the  Hotbed; 
(3)  Planting  in  the  Open. 

Transplanting:  Reasons. — (1)  Crops  may  be  started  earlier  in 
hotbeds;  (2)  plants  get  sufficient  growth  to  enable  them  to  out- 
strip weeds;  (3)  a  good  root  system  is  developed  on  plants  in  the 
hotbed. 

Preparing  the  Seed  Bed. — The  soil  should  be  thoroughly  pul- 
verized so  that  the  small  particles  of  soil  can  be  pressed  closely 
around  the  rootlets  of  the  plant.  This  is  necessary  to  enable  the 
young  plant  to  become  established  in  its  new  home.  Many  of 
the  root  hairs  are  broken  off  the  plant  in  removing  it  from  the 

167 


hotbed,  hence  the  necessity  of  having  a  finely  pulverized  soil, 
containing  ample  moisture  to  insure  the  plants  a  ready  and  sat- 
isfactory growth. 

When  to  Transplant. — (1)  The  plants  should  be  ready,  that  is, 
the  plants  should  be  first  class.  (2)  The  time  when  there  is 
danger  of  frosts  should  have  passed.  (3)  The  soil  should  be  in 
proper  condition — neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry.  (4)  Cool,  cloudy 
weather  and  a  damp  atmosphere  favor  transplanting.  Just  be- 
fore a  rain  is  always  the  best  time,  but  the  work  cannot  be  done 
at  this  time  as  a  general  thing. 

Hardening  off  Plants. — If  the  plants  are  quite  delicate  it  is 
often  necessary  to  harden  them  off  before  transplanting.  This 
can  be  done  by  removing  the  cover  of  the  hotbed  during  the  day. 
If  the  danger  of  frost  is  past,  the  covers  may  be  left  off  at  night. 
The  supply  of  water  should  be  gradually  reduced  for  some  days 
before  the  plants  are  to  be  removed  from  the  hotbed. 

Setting  the  Plants. — Before  taking  the  plants  from  the  bed  it 
should  be  watered  thoroughly  and  the  water  given  time  to  soak 
into  the  soil.  Take  up  the  plants  with  a  trowel  or  similar  imple- 
ment. Allow  the  damp  soil  to  adhere  to  the  roots.  Immediately 
pack  the  plants  in  a  box  or  basket  in  which  to  carry  them  to  the 
field.  Mark  off  the  rows  or  dig  the  holes  for  the  plants  just  be- 
fore planting  to  prevent  the  drying  of  the  soil.  If  the  soil  is  very 
dry  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  little  water  in  the  hole.  Apply  the 
water  when  the  hole  is  partly  filled  with  soil  and  cover  with  dry 
soil  to  prevent  baking.  The  plants  should  be  set  a  little  deeper 
in  the  garden  or  field  than  they  were  in  the  plant  bed.  Pack  the 
soil  thoroughly  around  the  roots. 

Planting  in  the  Hotbed. — It  is  now  time  to  sow  in  the  hotbed 
seeds  of  the  more  delicate  plants,  such  as  tomatoes,  egg  plants, 
and  peppers.  Sweet  potatoes  should  be  bedded  the  latter  part 
of  this  month. 

Planting  in  the  Open. — Turnips,  carrots,  beets,  potatoes, 
onions  and  celery  may  be  planted  this  month  in  all  parts  of  the 
State  except  possibly  the  mountain  section.  Hardy  plants  started 
in  the  hotbed  in  February  should  be  ready  to  transplant  some- 
time this  month. 

Textbook  References. — ^Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  94,  95, 
96,  97,  99,  100,  103,  104,  and  105;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  57- 
60;  Davis,  pp.  174-177. 

168 


Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  255,  433,  and  647: 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  126,  133, 
172,  173,  and  180. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Tomato  club  members  should  sow 
tomato  seed  in  the  hotbed  this  month.  If  more  convenient,  a 
large  box  may  be  substituted  for  the  ordinary  hotbed.  The  box 
can  be  kept  indoors  when  the  weather  is  very  bad  and  placed  in 
the  open  when  the  weather  is  favorable.  (2)  Each  member  of 
the  class  that  is  not  a  member  of  one  of  the  regular  clubs  should 
be  encouraged  to  grow  at  least  a  small  plat  of  vegetables  in  the 
home  or  school  garden. 

Correlations. — Drawing:  Have  the  pupils  make  sketches  of 
plants  that  are  ready  to  transplant.  Among  these  are  cabbage 
and  lettuce. 

Arithmetic:  How  many  bushels  of  potatoes  are  necessary  to 
plant  an  acre?  If  ten  bushels  are  required  to  plant  an  a(Te  find 
the  cost  at  the  market  price. 

A  potato  weighing  3  ounces  when  cut  in  half  and  planted  oiu) 
piece  in  a  place  gives  good  results  as  to  yield.  If  the  distance  be- 
tween the  rows  is  3  feet  and  the  distance  between  plants  is  12 
inches,  how  many  bushels  (60  pounds  per  bushel)  of  3-ounce  po- 
tatoes cut  in  halves  are  necessary  to  plant  an  acre? 

LESSON  SEVEN. 

Subject:  Insects. 

((I)  Classification; 

^     .  (2)  Growth  and  Change; 

Topics;    <  ^;  Tf    o. 

1  (3)  Life  Stages; 

[  (4)  Some  Insect  Enemies  of  Man. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  insects  cause  a  loss  of  $1,000,000,000 
each  year  to  the  farmers  of  the  United  States.  In  addition  to 
this  financial  loss  insects  injure  the  health  of  and  cause  consider- 
able loss  of  life  to  both  men  and  animals.  The  consideration  of 
these  facts  suggests  the  importance  of  studying  insects. 

Classification. — One  of  the  most  important  classifications  of  in- 
sects from  the  farmer's  point  of  view  is  based  on  their  methods 
of  attacking  plants  and  animals;  namely,  by  biting,  such  as  grass- 
hoppers and  beetles,  and  by  sucking,  such  as  mosquitoes,  bedbugs, 
bees  and  butterflies.     The  former  consume  the  entire  substance 

169 


on  which  they  feed  as  bark,  leaves,  fruit  or  flowers,  and  may  be 
killed  by  the  application  of  some  poisonous  material  to  the  plants 
on  which  they  feed.  The  sucking  insects  live  upon  the  sap  of 
plants  or  the  blood  of  animals.  As  they  get  their  food  from  the 
inside  of  plants  they  cannot  be  killed  by  poisoning  their  food, 
hence  the  necessity  of  using  poisons  that  destroy  the  insects  by 
coming  in  contact  with  their  bodies.  Insects  breathe  through  the 
pores  of  their  bodies  and  if  these  are  closed  by  oils  or  powder  the 
insects  soon  die. 

Growth  and  Change. — The  outside  coat  of  insects  becomes  hard 
so  that  when  a  growing  insect  has  become  sufficiently  large  to 
entirely  fill  this  coat  a  new  soft  one  is  formed  underneath  aad  the 
old  one  is  shed.  The  process  of  shedding  the  coat  is  called  moult- 
ing. The.  coat  may  be  shed  several  times  during  the  life  of  the 
insect.  As  insects  have  no  bones,  the  outside  skin  or  coat  js  really 
a  skeleton. 

Some  insects  make  very  little  change  during  the  last  two  moults. 
This  is  true  of  some  bugs  and  grasshoppers.  Others  make  a  great 
change  in  structure  and  outward  appearance  at  the  times  of  the 
last  two  moults.  Such  change  is  seen  in  wasps,  bees,  butterflies, 
moths,  beetles,  flies  and  mosquitoes. 

Life  Stages. — Insects  with  complete  changes  are  said  to  have 
four  stages  (fig.  5),  in  their  lives:  namely,  (1)  egg  stage,  (2)  larval 
stage,  (3)  pupal  stage,  and  (4)  adult  stage.  The  egg  is  deposited 
by  the  adult  and  from  it  the  larva  develops.  The  larval  stage  is 
the  period  of  growth.  It  is  during  this  period  of  the  insect's 
life  that  most  of  the  feeding  is  done.  With  some  insects  enough 
food  is  consumed  during  the  larval  stage  to  last  them  through  the 
other  stages  of  life.  In  the  pupal  stage  no  food  is  taken  in,  and 
in  this  respect  it  is  a  resting  stage  but  profound  changes  are  tak- 
ing place  beneath  the  skin.  The  larva  usually  encloses  itself  in 
some  kind  of  case.  The  cocoon  is  a  familiar  instance  of  such  a 
case.  Wings  and  real  legs  are  grown,  compound  eyes  are  de- 
veloped, often  a  different  mouth  is  formed,  and  antennae  or 
feelers  are  grown  upon  the  head.  The  pupal  stage  may  last 
from  a  few  days  to  an  entire  fall  and  winter.  The  adult  comeS 
out  of  the  pupa  case  with  a  new  set  of  organs.  It  does  not  look 
like  the  larva,  yet  it  is  the  same  fellow.  The  larvae  of  many  in- 
sects are  known  by  special  names.  Larvae  of  butterflies  and 
moths  are  called  caterpillars;  the  maggot  is  the  larva  of  the  fly; 

170 


wrigglers  are  the  larvae  of  mosquitoes;  nymph  is  the  name  given 
to  the  larval  stage  of  a  dragon  fly  or  a  grasshopper. 

Some    of    Man's    Insect   Enemies. — Mosquitoes  are  not  only 
troublesome,  but  they  are  carriers  of  malaria.     In  fact  this  dis- 


FiG.  5.    Life  Stages  of  the  Bee. 


ease  can  be  carried  only  by  means  of  mosquitoes.  Flies  lay  eggs 
in  moist  refuse  such  as  manure,  garbage  and  slop.  In  such  places 
they  go  through  the  several  stages  and  develop  into  the  adult  fly. 
Germs  of  diseases  such  as  typhoid  fever  are  carried  on  the  feet 

171 


and  mouth  parts  of  house  flies.  They  visit  filthy  places  and 
carry  germs  to  the  kitchens  and  dining  rooms.  There  are  two 
good  remedies  that  are  easy  to  apply:  (1)  Clean  up  places  where 
flies  breed,  and  (2)  screen  the  houses.  Potato  beetles  attack 
potatoes,  and  unless  successfully  combated  they  do  great  damage 
to  the  crop.  Paris  green  and  arsenate  of  lead  are  mixed  with 
water  or  Bordeaux  mixture  and  sprayed  on  the  vines.  The  cod- 
ling moth  or  apple  worm  does  great  damage  to  the  apple  crop  of 
the  country.  The  adult  lays  eggs  on  apple  leaves  about  the  time 
the  flower  petals  fall.  The  larva  eats  its  way  into  the  fruit  and 
feeds  about  the  center.  The  curculio  of  plums  and  peaches  makes 
stone-fruits  wormy.  When  fruits  such  as  plums,  peaches,  cher- 
ries and  the  like  are  very  small  the  adult  beetle  cuts  a  crescent- 
shaped  opening  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit  and  lays  an  egg  within  the 
crescent.  A  grub-like  larva  hatches  and  eats  its  way  to  the  seed. 
This  attack  causes  the  fruit  to  fall  to  the  ground  prematurely. 
The  peach  tree  borer  does  a  great  deal  of  damage  to  peach  and 
plum  trees.  The  adult  is  a  wasp-like  moth.  It  lays  eggs  during 
the  summer  usually  on  the  bark  of  the  tree  near  the  ground. 
The  egg  hatches  into  a  small  grub  or  borer  and  begins  eating  under 
the  bark  of  the  trunk.  Exuding  gum  may  indicate  the  presence 
of  the  borer.  The  principal  method  of  destroying  borers  is  to 
remove  the  earth  around,  trees  for  a  few  inches  below  the  level  of 
the  ground.  After  a  few  days  dig  for  the  borers  with  a  knife  or 
wire.  The  San  Jos6  scale  is  probably  the  worst  enemy  of  tender 
fruit  tree  branches.  This  insect  multiplies  rapidly  during  the 
summer  months,  hence  the  necessity  of  spraying  before  warm 
weather  comes. 

Textbook  References.— Davis,  pp.  202-207;  BufPum  and  Dea- 
ver,  pp.  229-236;  Nolan,  pp.  24-26,  27,  32,  33,  34;  Burkett,  Stev- 
ens and  Hill,  pp.  144-152. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  444,  450,  447,  478, 
547,  637,  640,  657,  658,  659,  662;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  Bulletins  134,  142,  143,  161,  175,  and  176. 

Practical  Exercises. — Gather  cocoons,  also  pupae  found  in  webs 
on  tree  trunks.  Place  all  these  in  bottles  with  cloth  covered  tops 
and  watch  for  developments.     See  Farmers'  Bulletin  606. 

Correlations. — Language  and  Drawing:  Describe  and  make 
sketches  of  cocoons;  insects  in  other  forms. 

Arithmetic:  A  female  fly  that  may  s\irvive  the  winter  can  lay 

172 


four  batches  of  120  eggs  each.  Sixty  eggs  of  each  batch  produce 
female  flies.  Each  of  these  in  turn  lays  four  batches  of  120  eggs 
each.  Sixty  female  flies  are  produced  from  each  hatch.  Repro- 
duction continues  at  this  rate  through  twelve  generations  in  a 
season.     Find  the  number  of  flies  in  the  twelfth  generation. 

This  number  is  produced  from  one  female  fly  that  survived  the 
winter.     Swat  the  fly! 

LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  Plant  Diseases. 

{(1)  Types  of  Diseases; 
(2)  Prevention; 
(3)  Some  Common  Diseases. 

T3rpes  of  Diseases. — There  are  many  kinds  of  diseases  that 
attack  plants  grown  in  fields,  gardens  and  orchards.  There  are 
three  general  types;  namely,  (1)  those  produced  by  fungus  or 
small  plant  growths,  such  as  rust  and  smut;  (2)  diseases  produced 
by  minute  germs  or  bacteria  such  as  pear  blight;  and  (3)  diseases 
of  plants  due  to  poor  drainage,  poor  soil  or  unfavorable  climate. 
The  last  named  are  not  contagious. 

Prevention.— The  spores  from  which  diseases  develop  may  be 
destroyed  by  certain  spray  materials.  These  spores  should  be 
killed  before  they  get  into  the  leaves  or  tender  parts  of  plants. 
This  should  be  done  by  the  application  of  spray  materials  just 
strong  enough  to  destroy  the  spores  and  not  too  strong  to  injure 
the  plants  or  parts  of  plaats.  The  principal  fungicide  used  in 
preventing  plant  diseases  is  Bordeaux  mixture.  It  consists  of  5 
pouQds  copper  sulphate  (bluestone),  5  pounds  unslaked  lime  and 
50  gallons  of  water.  Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  water  at 
the  rate  of  one  pound  to  the  gallon.  Slake  the  lime  until  it  is  of 
a  creamy  consistency  and  then  add  water  at  the  rate  of  one  gal- 
lon to  each  pound  of  lime.  These  stock  solutions  should  be  kept 
until  needed,  then  dilute  each  as  much  as  necessary  and  pour 
t  he  two  solutions  at  the  same  time  in  a  barrel  or  tub.  Use  the 
mixture  immediately. 

The  lime-sulphur  wash  is  used  both  to  prevent  disease  and  to 
destroy  insects.  The  concentrated  solution  consists  of  30  pounds 
of  sulphur,  15  poimds  of  lime  and  15  gallons  of  water.  Wet  the 
sulphur  and  slake  tlie  lime.     Add  these  to  15  gallons  of  boiling 

173 


water  and  boil  until  dissolved.  Keep  this  in  a  closed  vessel  until 
ready  for  use.  Dilute  with  nine  times  its  volume  of  water  to 
make  the  spray. 

Some  Common  Diseases. — Brown  rot  of  peaches  causes  the 
fruit  to  decay  and  the  twigs  to  blight.  Peaches,  plums  and  cher- 
ries are  attacked  by  this  disease.  Spraying  for  San  Jos^  scale 
helps  to  preveut  the  disease.  Peach  leaf  curl  causes  the  leaves  to 
become  thickened,  curled  and  distorted.  The  leaves  turn  browa 
and  fall  off.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  spraying  for 
scale  insects  usually  keeps  the  leaf  curl  in  control.  Apple  scale 
attacks  both  leaves  and  fruit.  The  disease  appears  at  blossom- 
ing time  and  soon  causes  large  numbers  of  the  small  fruit  to  drop 
from  the  tree.  The  fruit  that  remains  becomes  rough,  irregular 
and  blotched.  The  disease  produces  sooty  spots  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  leaves.  Later  the  leaves  turn  yellow  and  fall  to 
the  ground.  Spraying  in  early  spring  with  lime  sulphur  mixture 
prevents  the  disease.  Potato  scab  produces  scabby  looking  areas 
on  the  surface  of  potatoes.  These  scabby  areas  may  deepen  into 
pits  or  considerable  depressions  if  the  disease  is  very  severe.  To 
prevent  the  disease  treat  seed  potatoes  in  a  solution  of  formalin 
consisting  of  one  pint  of  formaldehyde  and  32  gallons  of  water. 
The  potatoes  should  be  soaked  for  two  hours  in  such  a  solution. 
Do  not  plant  potatoes  on  ground  where  scabby  potatoes  have 
recently  been  grown.  Grain  smut  appears  as  a  black  powder  on 
grain  when  it  is  in  the  head.  Oats,  wheat  and  barley  are  often 
injured  by  this  disease.  The  disease  may  be  prevented  by  soak- 
ing the  seed  in  a  formalin  solution.  Mix  in  a  barrel  one-half 
pint  of  formaldehyde  and  20  gallons  of  water.  Place  the  seed  in 
a  sack  and  lower  it  into  the  solution  for  several  minutes.  Then 
scatter  and  dry  the  seed. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  224-232;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  129-142;  Nolan,  pp.  42-44;  Buffum  and  Deaver, 
pp.  198-202. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  127,  243,  440,  492,  507, 
and  544;  Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins 
143  and  164. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  the  members  of  the  class  bring  to 
school  specimens  of  potatoes  affected  by  scab,  and  if  convenient 
apples  affected  by  scab.  Possibly  some  peach  mummies  may  still 
be  found  in  some  orchards.     These  were  mummified  as  a  result 

174 


of  brown  rot.  These  should  all  be  studied  in  the  class  to  enable 
the  pupils  to  recognize  the  diseases  and  to  see  the  damage  done 
to  the  plant  products. 

Correlations. — Drawing:  Make  sketches  of  potatoes  and  apples 
showing  the  scab.     Outline  a  mummified  peach. 

Arithmetic :  Based  on  local  prices  of  materials  find  the  cost  of 
the  sprays  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  lesson. 

LESSON  NINE. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Soil. — Continue  plowing.  Harrow  and  reharrow  all  plowed 
land  until  a  perfect  seed  bed  is  secured.  An  ounce  of  preparation 
is  worth  a  pound  of  cultivation.  Apply  lime  to  corn  land  as  the 
seed  bed  is  being  prepared.  Where  grass  lands  have  not  had  a 
sufficient  amount  of  stable  manure  applied  previously  there  should 
now  be  an  application  of  commercial  fertilizers.  As  the  grass 
becomes  green  is  the  proper  time  to  make  the  application. 

Go  over  your  drainage  systems  and  see  that  they  are  working 
properly.  Often  earth  from  the  sides  is  thrown  into  the  bottom 
of  open  ditches  by  the  freezing  and  thawing  of  winter.  This  may 
so  choke  up  the  ditch  so  as  to  interfere  with  the  outflow  of  water, 
or  the  earthslide  may  cause  the  flow  to  cut  into  and  undermine 
the  opposite  bank.  Where  there  is  underdrainge  see  that  the 
outlets  are  open.  Examine  the  fields  of  winter  wheat,  rye  and 
other  winter  grains  and  see  if  the  crop  has  been  killed,  injured  in 
spots  by  "heaving"  or  "spewing,"  or  has  been  drowned  out  by 
water  standing  on  the  surface  during  the  winter.  If  any  such 
spots  are  found  plan  to  give  them  better  draiziage. 

The  time  will  soon  come  for  turning  stock  on  pasture.  Trouble 
may  be  saved  if  the  fences  are  gone  over  at  this  time  and  loose 
wires  tightened  up  and  defective  posts  or  rails  replaced. 

Continue  hauling  manure  on  fields  intended  for  corn.  Fresh 
manure  spread  on  the  top  of  plowed  land  and  worked  in  with  the 
harrow  will  give  better  results  than  if  spread  before  plowing  at 
this  season  unless  the  manure  be  very  coarse. 

The  too  common  practice  of  burning  over  old  fields  at  this 
season  preparatory  to  plowing  is  strongly  to  be  reprobated.  lb 
is  much  better  practice  to  go  over  such  fields  with  the  disk  har- 
row once  or  twice  to  chop  up  the  dry  vegetable  matter  and  mix 

175 


it  with  the  soil  and  then  plow,  rather  than  to  burn  the  vegetable 
matter,  which  is  the  life  of  the  soil. 

Crops. — Continue  sowing  red  clover  seed.  Begin  to  make 
plans  for  planting  alfalfa  in  late  summer  and  early  fall.  Con- 
tinue sowing  oats  in  Southern  Maryland  and  on  the  Eastern 
Shore. 

Horticulture. — Continue  pruning  and  take  up  the  work  of 
spraying.  Do  not  put  off  spraying  until  insects  and  plant  dis- 
eases appear.  Preventive  spraying  is  more  effective  than  spray- 
ing to  check  or  destroy  insects  and  diseases.  Lime  sulphur  not 
only  destroys  the  scale  insects  but  rids  the  plants  of  fungous  or 
germ  diseases.  Bordeaux  mixture  is  a  splendid  preventive  treat- 
ment for  plant  diseases.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  effective  in  con- 
nection wih  the  principal  insects  that  attack  plants. 

The  garden  work  should  be  pushed  along.  In  those  sections 
of  the  State  where  the  growing  of  potatoes  is  an  important  phase 
of  farming  the  seed  should  be  secured,  treated  with  formalin  solu- 
tion and  planted.  Some  planting  in  the  open  may  be  done  this 
month  in  all  parts  of  the  State  except  in  the  mountain  section. 

Farm  Animals. — Make  preparations  for  the  coming  of  new  lit- 
ters of  pigs.  Fix  the  farrowing  pen  and  provide  bedding.  When 
the  young  pigs  arrive  see  that  the  sow  receives  proper  food,  water 
and  attention.  The  success  of  the  pigs  depends  very  much  on 
the  attention  the  sow  and  pigs  receive  during  the  first  few  weeks. 
Grazing  is  an  important  element  in  the  ration  and  is  an  inexpen- 
sive feed.     This  should  have  been  previously  provided  for. 

This  is  an  important  month  with  those  interested  in  poultry. 
Natural  and  artificial  incubation  is  in  progress.  Much  of  the 
year's  success  depends  upon  the  results  obtained  this  month  and 
next.  See  that  sitting  hens  are  comfortable  and  properly  cared 
for  and  the  incubator  is  kept  in  proper  condition  for  satisfactory 
incubation.  The  inexperienced  operators  of  incubators  should 
follow  instructions  closely.  Large  hatchings  of  thrifty  chickens 
are  the  results  desired.  Failures  are  expensive  both  in  eggs  and 
time. 

All  draft  horses  should  be  well  fed  and  kept  in  thrifty  condi- 
tion. The  work  of  the  farm  is  becoming  heavy  and  the  work 
animals  should  be  in  condition  to  render  good  service.  Feed 
the  dairy  cows  well.     Do  not  let  them  drop  off  in  the  milk  flow. 


176 


Pastures  will  soon  be  ready  and  then  it  will  be  time  enough  to 
consider  a  let  up  in  the  feed. 

Plans,  Improvements  and  Repairs. — Keep  up  with  the  book- 
keeping. Get  the  habit  of  keeping  accurate  records.  Begui 
whitewashing  the  farm  buildings.  Use  lime  liberally  about  the 
premises.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  vermin 
getting  a  start  about  poultry  yards  and  houses.  Be  prepared  to 
meet  an  epidemic  of  hog  cholera.  Keep  in  touch  with  the  Mary- 
land Agricultural  College  so  that  in  the  event  of  an  outbreak  of 
cholera  in  the  communitj^  inoculating  material  may  be  had 
promptly. 


177 


APRIL. 
Introduction. 

As  spring  advances  the  teachers  should  take  advantage  of  the 
open  weather  to  go  on  excursions  with  the  pupils  to  make  field 
observations  in  connection  with  the  work  in  agriculture.  If  each 
trip  is  made  with  a  definite  purpose,  and  the  pupils  are  required 
to  take  notes  on  the  things  observed,  the  lessons  in  the  class  may 
be  greatly  reinforced. 

Each  teacher  should  encourage  the  members  of  the  class  in 
agriculture  to  take  up  some  club  project.  Information  with  ref- 
erence to  club  work  may  be  had  from  the  Maryland  Agricultural 
College  and  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

LESSON  ONE. 

Subject:  Gardening. 

r(l)  The  Cold  Frame; 
Topics:    <  (2)  Planting  in  Cold  Frames; 
[  (3)  Planting  in  the  Open. 

Cold  Frame :  Importance. — Many  of  the  less  hardy  plants  that 
are  started  in  the  hotbed  must  be  transferred  to  the  cold  frame 
before  it  is  safe  to  set  them  in  the  open.  Plants  that  can  be 
grown  in  the  open  at  certain  seasons  may  be  grown  in  cold  frames 
either  for  market  or  home  use  when  the  weather  conditions  are 
unfavorable.  '  This  is  true  of  such  plants  as  lettuce  and  radishes. 
The  principal  use  of  the  cold  frame  in  the  early  spring  is  to  harden 
off  tender  plants  before  setting  them  in  the  open. 

Location. — Cold  frames  should  be  protected  from  the  north 
and  west  winds.  The  south  side  of  a  building,  hedge  or  fence 
makes  a  suitable  place.  It  is  necessary  to  use  considerable  water 
with  the  growing  plants,  hence  the  water  supply  should  be  con- 
venient. If  the  ground  is  uneven  or  sloping  it  should  be  care- 
fully graded  before  placing  the  frames. 

The  Frame.— Cold  frames  (see  illustration  of  hotbed  in  Lesson 
Six,  February)  are  less  expensive  to  make  than  hotbeds.     Exca- 

178 


vation  is  not  necessary,  heating  material  is  not  needed  and  the 
frame  itself  requires  less  material.  The  size  of  the  plants  to  be 
grown  determines  the  height  of  the  frame.  Ordinarily  a  12-inch 
board  on  the  north  side  and  a  6-inch  board  on  the  south  side  are 
high  enough.  Tomatoes  usually  require  16-inch  and  10-inch 
boards  on  the  north  and  south  sides,  respectively.  Frames  usu- 
ally are  made  to  accommodate  two  or  four  3  by  6-foot  sashes.  In 
cold  weather  the  outside  of  the  frame  should  be  banked  with  soil 
or  sod. 

The  soil  in  the  frame  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  and  en- 
riched as  for  any  other  intensive  garden  work.  The  richer  the 
soil,  the  better  the  results. 

Planting  in  the  Cold  Frame. — The  very  tender  plants  such  as 
tomatoes,  egg-plants,  and  peppers  that  were  started  last  month 
in  the  hotbed  should  be  transferred  to  the  cold  frame.  Here 
they  must  be  carefully  attended  to  so  that  when  they  have  at- 
tained a  good  growth  they  may  be  hardened  off  and  when  the 
danger  of  frost  is  past  they  may  be  set  in  the  open. 

Planting  in  the  Open. — In  most  parts  of  the  State  cabbage 
should  be  set  out  this  month.  Peas  and  sugar  corn  should  be 
planted.  In  the  southern  parts  of  the  State  beans,  beets  and 
other  more  delicate  vegetables  should  be  planted.  Bush  beans 
should  be  planted  to  stand  3  or  4  inches  apart  in  rows  and  30 
inches  apart  where  horse  cultivation  is  to  be  used.  Lima  beans 
should  have  the  same  distance  between  the  rows  but  the  plants 
should  stand  5  and  6  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Pole  beans  should 
stand  3  to  4  plants  in  a  hill  and  there  should  be  a  distance  of  3 
to  5  feet  between  the  hills.  The  bean  seed  should  be  covered  to 
a  depth  of  IJ  to  2  inches,  depending  on  the  heaviness  of  the  soil. 

Beets  should  be  planted  in  drills  18  to  24  inches  apart  and 
about  f  to  1  inch  deep.  The  seed  should  be  sown  moderately 
thick,  but  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  up  thin  them  to  a  stand 
3  or  4  inches  apart.  The  instructions  with  reference  to  planting 
beans  and  beets  apply  in  cases  of  vegetables  with  similar  seeds 
and  growing  habits. 

Textbook  References. — Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  93-96; 
Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  154-156;  Nolan,  pp.  238-244;  Davis, 
pp.  175,  17b. 

Teachers*  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  255,  289,  433,  460 
and  647. 

179 


Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  members  ^f  the  class  to 
report  in  writing  as  to  the  cold  frames  used  at  their  homes.  Cover 
such  points  as  the  dimensions,  the  number  of  plants  that  may  be 
grown  at  one  time  and  the  kinds  of  plants  usually  grown  or  hard- 
ened off  in  the  cold  frames.  (2)  Tomato  club  members  should 
transfer  their  plants  from  hotbeds  or  germinating  boxes  to  cold 
frames.  Exercise  the  same  care  in  making  such  a  transfer  as  in 
transplanting.  Also  prepare  the  soil  for  the  setting  of  plants 
later. 

Correlations. — Have  each  pupil  submit  a  drawing  of  the  cold 
frame  used  at  home.  This  should  be  submitted  in  connection 
with  the  written  report. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  areas  of  the  cold  frames  reported  in  Ex- 
ercise 1 .  If  each  plant  in  the  cold  frame  occupies  a  space  3  inches 
square,  how  many  plants  may  be  accommodated  by  the  several 
frames.  Find  the  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  constructing  the 
several  frames  reported. 

Geography :  Is  the  sun  directly  overhead  at  noon  or  is  it  some- 
what to  the  south?  Do  the  sun's  rays  fall  vertically  upon  the 
earth's  surface  at  any  time  during  the  day  at  this  season?  A 
greater  number  of  rays  of  light  strike  a  certain  surface  if  they 
fall  vertically  upon  it.  Give  a  reason  for  the  cold  frame  sashes 
sloping  toward  the  south. 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:  Small  Fruit. 
Topic:  Grapes. 

Planting. — Attention  to  this  phase  of  the  subject  was  given  in 
the  November  number,  but  it  may  be  convenient  to  plant  at 
this  time,  hence  the  suggestions  in  this  connection.  If  cuttings 
are  used  in  planting,  two  should  be  set  in  a  place  to  insure  a  stand. 
If  both  cuttings  grow  one  of  them  can  be  easily  removed.  To 
prevent  the  cuttings  drying  out,  plant  them  so  that  the  top  bud 
is  slightly  above  the  ground.  If  rooted  vines,  either  grafts  or 
cuttings  are  used,  the  roots  should  be  cut  back  to  3  or  4  inches  in 
length.  Only  one  cane  of  the  top  should  be  left.  This  cane 
should  be  cut  back  so  as  to  contain  only  two  or  three  good  buds. 
In  case  of  grafts,  remove  all  suckers  and  scion  roots.  No  pruning 
is  necessary  the  first  year. 

180 


FiQ.  1.    One  Year's  Growth— Ready  to  Prune. 


181 


First  Pruning.—The  first,  pruning  after  planting  may  be  done 
any  time  during  the  dormant  period  of  the  plant.  It  is  now  too 
late  for  such  pruning.  During  the  spring  and  summer,  however, 
all  extra  young  shoots  should  be  removed.  The  one  cane  that  is 
to  become  the  main  vine  should  receive  the  full  force  of  the  plant. 
The  shoot  (fig.  1)  left  to  grow  must  be  kept  carefully  tied  to  the 
stake  to  cause  it  to  grow  erect  and  to  protect  it  from  being  broken 
by  the  wind.  When  the  main  shoot  has  grown  a  foot  above  the 
point  where  it  is  to  head  it  should  be  topped  at  the  point  where 
the  head  is  to  be.  The  laterals  that  are  desired  should  be  per- 
mitted to  grow.     All  other  shoots  should  be  removed. 

The  Trellis. — Where  there  is  room  for  only  a  few  vines,  they 
are  often  trained  on  porches,  fences,  outbuildings,  trees  or  arbors. 
The  arbor  furnishes  a  shady  bower  or  a  covered  walk  as  well  as 
fruit.  For  the  trellis  (fig.  2)  good  posts  of  cedar,  locust  or  other 
durable  wood  should  be  used.  They  should  be  long  enough  to 
stand  about  6  feet  high  when  set.  A  post  should  be  set  between 
each  two  plants.  The  end  posts  should  be  heavier  than  the 
others  and  should  be  thoroughly  braced  with  post  and  cross  wire. 
Number  11  galvanized  wire  makes  a  good  size  for  general  use. 

Black  Rot. — This  is  a  fungous  disease  spotting  the  leaves  and 
rotting  the  fruit  and  doing  immense  damage  in  some  seasons.  It 
is  most  prevalent  in  moist  warm  climates. 

Treatment:  After  growth  has  started  spray  five  or  six  times 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  at  intervals  of  two  weeks.  Use  the 
4-3-50  formula.  If  desired  for  the  last  spraying  to  prevent  dis- 
coloring the  fruit,  neutral  copper  acetate,  one  pound  to  50  gallons 
of  water,  may  be  used.  Bagging  bunches  with  4-pound  manila 
paper  bags  just  after  blossoming  is  almost  a  complete  protection 
from  black  rot  on  the  fruit.  This  is  also  a  protection  from  birds 
and  bees. 

Downy  Mildew. — This  disease  appears  as  downy  white  spots  on 
the  leaves,  also  attacks  the  fruit.  Some  varieties  are  more  sus- 
ceptible to  the  mildew  than  others.  Niagara  seems  to  be  more 
injured  than  other  commercial  varieties  grown  in  Maryland. 

Treatment :  The  treatment  recommended  for  the  black  rot  will 
answer  for  this  also. 

Leaf  Hoppers. — ^This  insect  causes  considerable  damage  to  the 
foliage,  lessening  the  vigor  of  the  plant  and  preventing  the  proper 
development  of  fruit. 

182 


FiQ.  2.    Modified  Munson  System  of  Training:  A,  Unprunbd; 

B,  Pruned. 


183 


Treatment:  As  the  mature  insect  winters  over  in  fence  rows 
or  where  leaves  or  other  material  are  allowed  to  collect,  the  bum» 
ing  of  such  rubbish  in  the  fall  is  a  good  preventive  measure.  Most 
of  the  damage  done  is  done  by  the  young  nymphs  and  spraying 
with  "Black  Leaf  40"  1  part  to  1600  parts  of  water  or  Bordeaux, 
should  be  done  during  the  latter  part  of  May. 

Flea  Beetle. — There  has  been  much  complaint  the  last  year  or 
two  of  injury  from  this  insect,  which  feeds  on  the  flower  clusters, 
often  ruining  the  entire  crop.  This  is  a  small,  steel  blue  insect, 
which  hops  away  when  approached. 

Treatment :  Upon  the  appearance  of  the  pest  spray  with  a  so- 
lution consisting  of  4  pounds  arseuate  of  lead,  1  gallon  glucose  or 
molasses  and  50  gallons  of  water. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  471;  Maryland  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  Bulletin  182. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  The  cuttings  that  were  started  on  the 
school  grounds  should  be  set  in  a  permanent  place.  Remove  all 
canes  but  one  and  carefully  tie  it  to  a  firmly  set  stake.  (2)  If 
practicable  the  teacher  and  members  of  the  class  should  visit  a 
farm  where  grapes  are  grown  to  some  extent  and  observe  the 
practice  in  handling  young  vines.  Otherwise  have  each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  report  in  writing  the  methods  followed  at  home. 
In  either  case  answer  the  following  questions:  How  far  apart,  are 
the  plants  set?  Are  grafts  or  rooted  cuttings  being  planted?  List 
the  varieties.  What  kind  of  stakes  are  used  for  supporting  the 
plants? 

Correlations. — Geography:  California,  New  York,  and  Michi- 
gan are  the  great  grape-growing  States  in  the  Union.  Compare 
these  States  as  to  latitude,  longitude,  climatic  conditions,  popula- 
tion and  other  agricultural  industries.  Compare  them  with  other 
grape-producing  countries  such  as  France  and  Italy. 

LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  Small  Fruits. 
Topic:  Strawberries. 

The  Soil. — The  strawberry  is  cosmopolitan  in  its  relation  to 
soil.  Any  soil  that  will  grow  crops  of  corn  or  vegetables  can  be 
made  to  grow  good  strawberries.  Strawberries  require  an  abun- 
dance of  plant  food  and  moisture.     A  soil  fitted  for  strawberries 

184 


should  be  in  excellent  tilth,  and  well  supplied  with  humus.  This 
can  be  supplied  advantageously  through  cover  crops  of  cowpeas, 
crimson  clover,  or  stable  manure.  If  a  cover  crop  is  turned  under 
and  followed  by  some  hoed  crop,  the  land  will  receive  a  good  pre- 
liminary treatment  for  strawberries. 

Previous  Treatment  of  the  Soil. — Stable  manure  may  be  ap- 
plied in  the  winter  months  and  plowed  under  early  in  the  spring. 
It  should  be  well  distributed  through  the  soil.  This  will  enrich 
the  soil  and  make  it  capable  of  holding  large  quantities  of  mois- 
ture which  the  plants  can  draw  upon  later.  If  stable  manure  is 
not  available,  commercial  fertilizer  may  be  used.  It  should  be 
appUed  after  the  land  has  been  plowed  and  harrowed  once.  If 
the  land  is  a  clay  soil,  the  harrow  should  follow  the  plow  immedi- 
ately, or  it  may  be  difficult  to  get  the  land  free  from  lumps.  Sandy 
soil  should  be  rolled  down  firmly  after  harrowing  and  all  soils 
should  be  smooth  and  level  before  marking  the  rows. 

Planting. — Strawberries  for  commercial  purposes  are  planted 
in  rows  about  4  feet  apart  and  the  plants  15  inches  apart  in  the 
row. 

When  the  plants  come  from  the  nursery  they  should  be  un- 
packed, the  bundles  opened  and  heeled  in.  Before  taking  them 
out  to  plant,  the  roots  should  be  puddled.  Before  setting  the 
plants,  the  roots  should  be  cut  back  about  one-third.  The  foli- 
age should  also  be  reduced,  leaving  only  the  youngest  or  crown 
leaf.  Strawberries  should  be  set  in  a  flat  hole  such  as  is  made  by 
a  flat  dibble  or  spade.  The  roots  should  be  spread  and  fan- 
shaped  in  this  hole,  and  the  dirt  firmly  pressed  against  them  from 
both  sides.     A  good  time  to  set  them  out  is  right  after  a  rain. 

Cultivation  should  start  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  set.  It  is 
best  to  use  a  fine-toothed  cultivator,  and  cultivate  close  iip  to 
the  plants.  This  breaks  up  the  ground  compacted  in  setting  the 
plants  and  establishes  a  dust  mulch.  The  cultivator  should  be 
followed  with  the  hoe.  This  cultivation  should  be  repeated  after 
every  rain  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  workable. 

The  conservation  of  moisture  is  very  important.  Treat  every 
rain  as  if  it  were  the  last  one  expected  during  the  season.  Cul- 
tivate your  strawberries  every  week  if  you  can  and  keep^it  up 
until  quite  late  in  the  fall. 

Removing  the  Blossoms. — In  two  or  three  weeks  after  the 
plants  have  been  set  the  blossoms  will  appear.     At  this  iinu;  the 

185 


field  should  be  gone  over  and  the  blossoms,  or  buds,  removed. 
If  this  is  not  done  the  blossom  and  resultant  fruit  will  greatly 
weaken  the  plant.  A  newly  set  strawberry  does  not  start  mak- 
ing vigorous  growth  until  the  buds  have  been  removed. 

Picking  and  Marketing  the  Berries. — Just  when  to  pick  the 
berries  will  depend  largely  upon  when  they  are  to  be  marketed. 
If  the  fruit  has  to  be  shipped  a  long  distance,  it  should  be  picked 
before  they  are  fully  ripened  so  that  they  will  not  be  too  soft 
when  they  reach  the  market.  For  nearby  markets  they  may  be 
allowed  to  ripen  fully  but  they  should  still  be  good  and  firm. 
Strawberries  should  be  picked  with  the  stems  on.  Do  not  pick 
them  when  the  vines  are  wet  from  dew  or  rain  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
Berries  will  hold  up  better  and  carry  longer  distance  if  picked 
when  perfectly  dry.  Berries  picked  in  the  afternoon  will  gener- 
ally keep  better  than  those  picked  in  the  morning. 

The  berries  should  always  be  put  up  so  that  they  will  present 
an  attractive  appearance.  One  or  two  good  packers  will  take 
care  of  all  the  berries  picked  by  40  or  50  pickers.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  arrange  the  top  layer  of  each  box.  Place  the  stem 
ends  down  and  show  the  most  attra^ctive  side  of  the  berries.  Be- 
fore the  box  is  packed  in  this  manner  the  packer  should  make 
sure  that  the  berries  are  just  as  good  at  the  bottom  as  they  are 
on  top.  This  can  be  done  by  placing  the  hand  lightly  over  the 
berries  and  tipping  the  box  enough  so  that  the  bottom  can  be 
seen.  Unless  there  is  some  way  of  checking  up  the  pickers  there 
will  be  lots  of  poor  picking.  In  this  way  any  poor  work  on  the 
part  of  the  packers  will  be  discovered. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  pp.  196-198;  Buffum  and  Dea- 
ver,  pp.  186,  187. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  198  and  664;  Maryland 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  124,  160,  and  182. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  the  pupils  make  observations  at 
home  and  at  the  homes  of  neighbors  to  be  able  to  answer  the  fol- 
lowing questions: 

1.  Are  strawberries  grown  for  home  use  or  for  market? 

2.  What  kind  of  soil  is  planted  to  this  crop? 

3.  What  varieties  have  been  grown  with  best  success? 

4.  What  is  the  practice  as  to  distance  between  rows  and  between  plants? 

5.  What  diseases  or  insects  give  trouble? 

6.  What  preventive  measures  have  been  used  with  success? 

7.  What  area  is  devoted  to  strawberries. 

8.  What  is  the  usual  yield  per  acre? 

186 


Correlations. — Written  work  is  provided  by  answering  in  writ- 
ing the  foregoing  questions. 

Arithmetic:"  Find  the  total  area  devoted  to  strawberries  as 
determined  from  the  reports.  Find  the  total  yield  of  berries. 
Find  the  value  of  the  total  yield  of  berries  at  the  average  price. 

Geography:  What  is  the  principal  market  of  the  strawberry 
crop?  What  advantages  has  the  principal  market  over  other 
competing  points — nearness,  railroad  facilities,  number  of  con- 
sumers? 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Soils  and  Crops. 
T,^«,Vc.   /  (1)  Green  Manuring; 
lopics.    >^^2)  Sowing  Oats. 

Green  Manuring:  Defined. — The  turning  under  of  a  green 
crop  to  supply  organic  matter  to  the  soil  is  known  as  "green  ma- 
nuring." This  should  be  a  part  of  a  fixed  system  of  soil  manage- 
ment on  every  farm  where  permanent  improvement  of  the  soil  is 
intended.  The  green  plants  turned  under  furnish  ingredients  for 
immediate  use  by  the  succeeding  crop,  improve  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  by  adding  vegetable  matter,  and  in  the  proc- 
ess of  decay  assist  in  making  available  other  plant  food  in  the 
soil. 

Crops. — The  winter  cover  crops  planted  the  previous  summer 
or  fall  may  be  turned  under  at  this  time.  Among  these  crops  are 
rye,  barley,  oats,  wheat,  timothy,  crimson  clover,  and  vetch. 
Such  crops  as  cowpeas,  soybeans  and  velvet  beans  may  be  planted 
in  the  spring  and  turned  under  in  late  summer  or  early  fall. 

When  and  How  to  Turn  Crops. — The  crops  as  a  general  thing 
should  be  turned  when  they  have  reached  a  good  growth  and  are 
full  of  sap.  In  this. stage  the  plants  add  considerable  moisture 
to  the  soil  and  decay  rapidly.  In  turning  the  land  the  furrow 
slice  should  not  be  turned  over  flat.  If  this  is  done  there  will 
be  a  continuous  layer  of  vegetable  matter  between  the  soil  and 
subsoil.  This  layer  of  vegetable  matter  impedes  the  passing  of 
moisture  from  the  subsoil  upward  until  the  vegetable  matter 
has  decayed.  The  furrow  slice  should  be  turned  partly  over  and 
should  rest  against  its  neighbor.  In  this  way  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter may  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  and  the  movement  of 
soil  moisture  is  not  interfered  with. 

187 


Lime  and  Green  Manures. — If  the  soil  is  not  well  supplied  with 
lime  either  naturally  or  by  recent  application,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  apply  a  liberal  amount  in  connection  with  a  heavy  succu- 
lent crop.  When  vegetable  matter  decays  in  the  soil,  organic 
acids  are  produced.  These  acids  make  the  soil  sour,  hence  the 
necessity  of  using  lime.  The  lime  may  be  applied  in  connection 
with  a  previous  or  succeeding  crop  or  it  may  be  applied  before 
seeding  the  crop  to  be  used  as  green  manure. 

Oats:  Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — ^It  matters  little  what 
crop  has  been  grown  the  preceding  year  the  land  should  be  thor- 
oughly prepared.  Oats  usually  do  best  when  sown  in  a  firm  seed 
bed  with  about  3  inches  of  loose,  mellow  soil  on  the  surface.  If 
oats  follow  a  well  cultivated  crop  the  land  can  be  prepared  by 
double  disking  with  the  disks  set  to  cut  3  or  4  inches.  If  oats 
follow  grass  or  clover  the  land  should  be  turned  the  previous  fall 
or  winter  so  that  it  may  have  time  to  settle.  Double  disking 
just  before  planting  makes  a  good  seed  bed. 

Treating  for  Smut. — The  yield  of  grain  and  the  quality  of  the 
crop  can  be  considerably  increased  by  treating  the  seed  oats  for 
smut.  An  easy  method  is  to  sprinkle  the  seed  with  a  solution 
made  of  1  pound  or  pint  of  formalin  to  40  gallons  of  water.  Spread 
the  seed  on  a  floor,  and  thoroughly  sprinkle  and  turn  with  a  shovel 
until  all  the  grain  is  well  moistened.  Then  cover  the  seed  with 
sacks  or  blankets  for  several  hours.  Remove  the  cover,  let  the 
seed  dry  and  sow  as  soon  as  convenient. 

Date  of  Seeding. — In  Southern  Maryland  oats  may  be  sown  in 
the  fall,  but  in  Northern  and  Western  Maryland  it  is  hardly  ad- 
visable to  plant  the  crop  before  the  last  of  March  or  the  first  of 
April.  In  some  seasons  the  crop  might  be  planted  earlier,  but  as 
a  rule  it  is  not  safe  on  account  of  possible  freezes. 

Rate  of  Seeding. — The  rate  of  seeding  depends  on  the  locality, 
the  condition  and  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  method  of  seeding. 
Poor  soils  require  more  seed  than  fertile,  weedy  land  more  than 
clean,  broadcast  sowing  more  than  drilling.  The  best  practice 
indicates  that  from  8  to  12  pecks  should  be  sown  on  an  acre  de- 
pending on  the  conditions  mentioned. 

Methods  of  Seeding. — The  two  methods  in  common  use  are 
broadcastiag  and  drilling.  The  ideal  method  is  one  that  distrib- 
utes the  seed  evenly  and  to  a  uniform  depth  of  about  one  inch. 

188 


These  results  can  be  secured  only  by  drilling  seeds.  Seeds  that  are 
l)roadrastcd  should  be  covered  by  shallow  double  disking. 

Textbook  References.— Davis,  pp.  150-152;  pp.  73-76;  Butfuni 
and  Deaver,  pp.  114-117;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  209-212. 

Teachers*  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  266,  406,  and  424. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  members  of  the  class  to 
report  the  crops  being  turned  under  this  spring  at  their  homes. 
Make  a  list  of  these  crops.  (2)  Have  each  member  of  the  class 
report  on  the  following  points  with  reference  to  oats:  The  varie- 
ties planted,  the  number  of  acres  planted  to  each  variety,  the 
immber  of  bushels  planted  per  acre,  the  kinds  and  amounts  of 
fertilizers  used  and  the  use  of  smut  preventive.  (3)  Collect  and 
mount  in  small  bottles  specimens  of  the  several  varieties  of  oats 
being  planted  this  spring.     Label  each  bottle. 

Correlations. — ^As  written  work  have  the  pupils  copy  in  their 
class  notebooks  the  facts  learned  in  Exercises  1  and  2. 

Arithmetic :  How  many  acres  are  being  planted  to  oats  as  de- 
termined from  the  foregoiag  reports?  How  many  bushels  of  seed 
are  being  planted?  What  is  the  total  cost  of  the  oat  seed  at  local 
prices? 

Geography:  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  North  Da- 
kota, Ohio,  Nebraska,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  South  Dakota,  in 
the  order  named  lead  in  the  production  of  oats.  Locate  these 
States  on  the  map  and  compare  them  with  Maryland  as  to  lati- 
tude, longitude,  area,  population  and  industries. 

LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topic:  Natural  Brooding. 

The  Hen. — As  in  natural  incubation  the  hen  is  used  as  a  source 
of  heat  in  natural  brooding.  It  is  just  as  important,  if  not  more 
so,  to  have  a  good  hen  for  brooding  young  chicks.  As  a  rule  a 
good  sitter  is  also  a  good  mother,  but  not  always.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  hen  hatch  the  chicks  she  broods.  Oftentimes  where 
several  hens  are  sitting  the  chicks  when  hatched  may  be  given  to 
a  few  of  these  hens.  Chicks  hatched  in  incubators  may  be  brooded 
under  hens. 


189 


The  Coop. — ^A  good  coop  (fig.  3)  must  be  provided  if  the  old 
hens  are  to  do  well.  By  this  is  not  meant  an  expensive  one  for 
often  a  box  or  barrel  can  be  fixed  up  so  that  it  is  very  serviceable. 
A  barrel  laid  upon  its  side  and  a  piece  of  roofing  paper  tacked  over 
the  end  makes  a  good  shelter  when  placed  in  a  proper  place. 
Some  kind  of  front  should  be  provided  so  that  the  old  hen  can- 
not get  out  and  lead  the  chicks  through  the  wet  grass  early  in  the 
morning.     Inexpensive  coops  can  be  made  of  boxes.     A  coop  2 


Fig.  3.     A  Good  Type  of  Brooding  Coop. 


by  3  feet,  1  foot  high  in  the  rear,  and  2  feet  high  in  the  front  makes 
a  good  one.  If  a  sHding  door  is  put  on  the  front  covered  with 
fine  wire  and  the  whole  coop  placed  on  a  platform  rats  can  usually 
be  kept  out.  The  coop  should  be  high  enough  so  that  the  hen 
can  see  out  without  stooping  down,  otherwise  she  may  step  on 
8ome  of  the  chicks  and  kill  them. 

Care  of  the  Chicks- — Do  not  be  in  too  much  of  a  hurry  to  get 

190 


the  chicks  out  of  the  nest.  They  should  be  left  until  they  are 
quite  strong  and  well  dried  off.  If  the  chicks  have  been  hatched 
ia  an  incubator  they  should  be  given  to  the  hen  before  they  are 
more  than  two  or  three  days  old.  If  too  old  they  will  not  always 
go  under  the  hen.  Some  hens  will  not  take  strange  chicks,  there- 
fore you  should  put  two  or  three  under  each  hen  to  try  her  out 
before  giving  her  a  full  brood. 

The  number  that  can  be  safely  given  a  hen  varies  greatly. 
The  less  she  has  the  better  she  can  care  for  them.     Sometimes  in 


Fia.  4.    A  Coop  fob  Feeding  Small  Chicks. 


warm  weather  as  many  as  30  or  35  can  be  brooded  successfully 
under  a  good  motherly  hen,  but  between  15  and  20  would  be 
better.  In  cold  weather  a  hen  cannot  handle  nearly  so  many  as 
in  warm  weather. 

Feeding. — The  chicks  (fig.  4)  do  not  require  feed  the  first  couple 
of  days.  Then  they  should  be  fed  sparingly.  There  are  many 
things  that  can  be  used,  but  the  following  is  given  for  an  example 
of  suitable  feed  for  young  chicks : 

191 


First  few  feeds:  Hard  boiled  eggs  ground  in  a  food  chopper  and 
mixed  with  oatmeal.     Next  few  weeks: 

Mash  Mixture. 

Bran  (wheat) 4  parts. 

Corn  meal  or  hominy  chop 2  parts. 

Middlings  (wheat) 2  parts. 

Meat  scrap , 1  part. 

Salt,  I  lb.  to  each  100  lbs. 

Grain  Mixture. 

Finely  cracked  corn 1  part. 

Cracked  wheat 1  part. 

Hulled  oats 1  part. 

Use  the  above  two  mixtures,  the  mash  fed  in  shallow  troughs 
twice  daily  (about  10  a.m.  and  4  p.m.)  and  the  grain  in  a  litter 
of  cut  straw  three  times  daily  (early  in  morning,  noon  and  late 
in  the  evening).  At  first  the  mash  may  be  moistened  slightly 
with  water,  but  feed  dry  as  soon  as  chicks  learn  to  eat  it  readily. 
Chopped  hard-boiled  eggs  and  oatmeal  may  be  given  occasionally 
as  a  relish.  Regulate  the  feeds  so  that  the  chicks  are  hungry  at 
each  feeding  time,  but  be  certain  that  they  are  not  starved.  Lit- 
tle and  often  is  the  rule  with  young  chicks  until  they  get  to  going 
well. 

The  Health  of  the  Chicks. — It  is  very  important  that  lice  be 
kept  off  the  young  chicks.  If  the  hen  was  dusted  properly  while 
sitting,  there  should  be  no  trouble,  but  if  not,  the  chicks  had 
better  be  watched.  Head  lice  are  the  worst.  These  little  ani- 
mals seem  to  sap  the  vitality  from  a  young  chick  very  quickly. 
If  present,  grease  the  heads  of  the  young  chicks  with  a  very 
small  amount  of  vaseline  or  lard.  Do  not  use  too  much,  as  the 
chicks  are  rather  tender  and  can  be  killed  easily.  Dust  the  old 
hen  thoroughly  but  use  a  mild  powder.  Some  strong  powders 
are  rough  on  the  chicks. 

Protecting  the  Chicks. — The  young  chicks  must  be  carefully 
protected  from  all  enemies.  If  cats,  dogs,  rats,  etc.,  are  trouble- 
some you  will  probably  have  to  make  a  yard  for  them  and  shut 
them  up  each  night.  Plan  ahead  as  to  how  you  will  protect  the 
chicks  from  enemies  for  it  is  too  late  after  the  brood  has  been 
destroyed  by  some  animal. 

192 


Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  287,  528, 530,  and  624; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  171. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  pupils  to  report  in  writ- 
ing as  to  the  kinds  and  dimensions  of  brooding  coops  used  at  their 
homes.  (2)  Making  brooding  coops  for  home  use  is  suitable 
work  for  the  members  of  the  class  and  of  the  poultry  club. 

Correlations. — Reports  required  in  Exercise  1  provide  written 
work. 

Drawing:  Make  a  plan  of  a  brooding  coop. 

Arithmetic :  Develop  problems  to  determine  the  cost  of  making 
the  several  brooding  coops  in  use  at  the  homes  of  the  pupils. 

LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topic:  Artificial  Brooding. 

The  Brooder. — The  lamp  brooders  (fig.  5)  burning  kerosene  oil 
are  most  often  used,  especially  with  small  flocks.  They  operate 
much  in  the  same  manner  as  oil  incubators  and  should  be  handled 
just  as  carefully.  Most  brooders  are  rated  to  accommodate  from 
75  to  100  chicks,  but  50  is  nearer  the  proper  number.  When 
everything  goes  well  the  large  number  may  be  handled  success- 
fully, but  a  chilling  or  other  trouble  is  disastrous  with  the  large 
flocks. 

If  the  brooder  has  been  used  before,  it  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned  and  disinfected.  Some  one  of  the  coal  tar  dips  put  out 
by  a  reliable  firm  may  be  used.  Use  good  clean  litter  for  the 
floor.  In  fact  everything  must  be  clean  and  in  good  order  to  get 
the  best  results.  Clean  straw  cut  in  short  lengths  makes  a  good 
litter.  Clover  chaff,  cut  hay,  cut  clover,  alfalfa  meal,  and  even 
bran  are  sometimes  used  as  a  litter.  The  main  thing  is  to  have 
it  clean. 

The  brooder  should  be  thoroughly  tested  out  before  the  young 
chicks  are  put  in,  as  success  with  the  flock  will  be  measured  largely 
by  the  way  you  handle  them  the  first  few  days. 

Care  of  the  Chicks. — Be  careful  not  to  chill  the  chicks  when 
removing  them  from  the  incubator  to  the  brooder.  Use  a  good 
large  basket  and  a  warmed  cloth  to  cover  them.  Put  them  un- 
der the  hover  and  watch  them  carefully  until  you  are  sure  that 
they  know  where  to  get  warm.     The  old  hen  can  cluck  to  them 

193 


and  call  them,  but  the  metal  hover  camiot.  The  attendant  has 
to  take  the  old  hen's  place  in  teaching  the  chicks  where  the  heat 
is  to  be  found.  As  soon  as  any  of  the  chicks  show  signs  of  being 
chilled  place  them  where  it  is  warm.  They  will  soon  learn  to 
take  care  of  themselves.  If  they  are  not  watched  carefully  at 
the  outset,  they  crowd  into  a  comer  and  injure  or  kill  themselves. 
This  is  what  the  poultrymen  call  "huddling."  After  the  chicks 
have  once  "huddled"  they  will  always  pile  up  when  cold.  They 
seem  never  to  forget  how  they  first  got  warm. 


Fig.  5.    A  Good  Type  op  Brooder. 


The  temperature  at  which  to  operate  a  brooder  varies  greatly. 
The  best  way  is  to  have  the  hover  just  warm  enough  so  that  the 
chicks  will  poke  their  heads  out  from  under  the  curtain.  The 
sound  made  by  chicks  when  cold  or  uncomfortable  is  very  differ- 
ent from  that  made  when  they  are  happy  and  contented.  The 
attendant  should  be  able  to  detect  this  difference.  Feed  the 
chicks  the  same  as  directed  under  natural  brooding.  See  that 
they  get  plenty  of  water  and  green  food.  If  they  are  shut  up  see 
that  they  get  some  material  that  they  can  use  for  making  bone. 

194 


It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  ground  bone  before  growing  chicks. 
Keed  often  and  sparingly.  If  the  chicks  are  fed  often  and  are 
hungry  every  time  they  are  fed,  there  is  no  danger  of  overfeeding. 
This  feeding  often  makes  it  reasonably  certain  that  they  are 
getting  at  least  nearly  enough. 

Keep  the  brooder  clean.  The  more  chicks  there  are  the  more 
often  it  should  be  cleaned.  If  neglected  for  as  much  as  a  week 
the  chicks  soon  show  it. 

Fireless  Brooder. — This  system  of  brooding  is  very  successful 
with  some  but  it  requires  considerable  time.  The  principle  is 
to  confine  the  chicks  within  a  rather  small  place  and  the  animal 
heat  from  their  bodies  keeps  them  warm.  A  box  18  inches  by 
18  inches  and  about  6  inches  high  will  make  a  fireless  brooder.  To 
provide  a  door,  cut  a  hole  in  one  side  and  tack  a  piece  of  wire 
gauze  over  it.  Then  fit  a  light  irame  on  top  of  the  box  and  tack 
a  piece  of  canton  flannel  or  old  quilt  over  it,  letting  it  hang  quite 
loose.  The  box  should  be  provided  with  a  wood  cover  about  4 
inches  deep.  A  few  inch  holes  should  be  bored  in  two  sides  of  the 
cover  for  ventilation. 

To  operate  the  brooder  fill  it  well  up  with  fine  straw  or  chaff, 
being  sure  the  comers  are  packed  full.  Make  a  nest  just  about 
the  size  of  a  hen's  nest  in  the  straw  or  chaff.  It  is  then  ready  for 
the  chicks.  Not  less  than  18  or  20  nor  more  than  30  chicks  should 
be  placed  in  the  brooder.  Too  few  will  not  keep  warm  and  too 
many  will  pile  up  and  smother.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  place 
some  cotton  or  wool  over  the  cloth  which  rests  on  the  chicks. 
It  takes  a  lot  of  time  and  patience  to  teach  chicks  where  to  get 
the  warmth  in  a  brooder  of  this  kind.  For  some  time  the  chicks 
will  have  to  be  taken  out  and  put  back  every  time  they  are  fed. 
This  is  the  greatest  difficulty  with  the  brooder.  The  straw  or 
litter  should  be  changed  often  and  dried  out  every  day  as  the 
young  chicks  give  off  a  great  deal  of  moisture.  This  type  of  brooder 
should  be  kept  indoors  except  in  warm  weather.  In  cold  weather, 
heat  must  be  furnished  to  the  room  from  some  source. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  624. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  pupils  to  make  written 
reports  on  the  kinds,  dimensions  and  methods  of  heating  the 
artificial  brooders  at  their  homes.  Discuss  in  class  the  degree  of 
successmet  withintheuseof  each.  (2)  Making  a  fireless  brooder 
is  suitable  work  for  members  of  the  class  and  of  the  poultry  clubs. 

195 


Correlations. — Written  work  is  provided  for  in  Exercise  J. 

Drawing:  Make  a  plan  for  a  fireless  brooder.  Have  each 
pupil  sketch  the  brooder  used  at  home. 

Arithmetic :  Develop  problems  to  determine  the  cost  of  making 
a  fireless  brooder. 

LESSON  SEVEN. 

Subject:  Silage. 
Topic:  The  Crops. 

Com. — The  most  generally  used  and  the  best  crop  for  silage  is 
corn.  Any  variety  that  grows  well  in  the  community  will,  do. 
In  planting  com  for  silage,  the  seed  bed  should  be  prepared  the 
same  as  for  grain.  If  drilled  in  rows  with  a  kernel  every  8  inches, 
the  maximum  yield  of  silage  may  be  expected,  although  there 
will  not  be  as  much  grain  as  when  the  kernels  are  dropped  farther 
apart.  Corn  is  the  logical  silage  crop  because  more  tons  per 
acre  can  be  grown.  Again,  the  corn  stalk  has  a  pithy  stem;  the 
pithy  stem  makes  the  exclusion  of  air  easy,  consequently  the 
silage  is  not  as  apt  to  spoil.  Corn  contains  starchy  substances 
so  that  the  fermentation  will  be  carried  far  enough  to  keep  the 
silage  in  good  condition  by  the  production  of  certain  acids. 

Sorghum  and  Kafir  Com. — Both  these  plants  make  good  silage. 
They  may  be  drilled  or  broadcasted.  Drilling  is  the  most  practi- 
cable, as  it  is  difficult  to  harvest  the  crop  when  sown  broadcast. 
Sorghum,  although  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  sugar,  will  not 
ferment  so  as  to  render  the  silage  too  sour. 

Legumes. — Legumes,  such  as  alfalfa,  clover,  vetch,  cow  peas, 
and  soybeans  have  been  ensiled  with  varying  success.  Bacteria 
seems  to  act  on  the  protein  before  enough  acid  can  be  developed 
to  kill  the  bacteria.  This  action  gives  the  silage  a  strong  and 
disagreeable  odor.  If  it  seems  expedient  to  use  a  legume  for  silage, 
some  plant  not  so  rich  in  protein  should  be  sown  with  the  legume. 
Crimson  clover  and  winter  oats  have  been  used  with  success  in 
some  localities.  Winter  vetch  with  wheat  makes  a  good  combi- 
nation for  spring  silage.  If  these  combinations  are  used  great 
care  should  be  taken  in  packing  the  silage.  Both  plants  have 
hollow  stems  and  will  carry  much  air  into  the  silo,  which,  if  not 
excluded  by  packing,  will  cause  excessive  fermentation. 

Dried  Stover. — Stover  has  been  used  for  silage  by  adding  water 

196 


enough  to  take  the  place  of  that  lost  by  drying.  On  most  farms 
this  is  impracticable  owing  to  the  great  quantity  of  water  required. 
The  silage  is  not  as  good  as  when  placed  in  the  silo  at  the  proper 
time. 

Textbook  References. — Davis,  )).  811;  Buffum  and  Deaver, 
pp.  7\),  SO. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  578. 

Practical  Exercises. — (I)  Require  tlie  members  of  the  class 
to  collect  and  compile  the  following  community  information: 
(a)  The  number  of  stave  silos  and  the  dimensions  and  the  ton 
capacity  of  each;  (b)  the  number  of  concrete  silos  and  the  dimen- 
sions and  ton  capacity  of  each ;  (c)  the  number  of  metal  silos  and 
the  dimensions  and  ton  capacity  of  each;  (d)  the  total  number  of 
silos  and  the  total  ton  capacity. 

(2)  Collect  and  compile  the  following  information:  The  num- 
ber of  acres  to  be  planted  (a)  in  corn,  (b)  in  sorghum,  and  (c)  in 
legumes  for  silage. 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  prepare  tables 
similar  to  the  one  that  follows.  These  tables  may  be  used  in 
collecting  and  compiling  the  silo  survey  facts. 

Community  Silo  Survey. 


NAME   OF   OWNER 

KIND  or 

SILO 

HEIGHT 

DIAMHTER 

CAPACITY 

Cubic  feet 

Tons 

John  Smith 

Stave 

30  ft. 

14  ft. 

4320 

100 



Arithmetic:  Find  the  total  ton  capacity  of  the  silos  in  the 
community.  Find  the  total  capacity  in  cubic  feet.  How  many 
pounds  of  silage  in  each  cubic  foot?  If  a  dairy  cow  is  fed  at  the 
rate  of  30  pounds  of  silage  a  day,  how  many  cows  could  be  sup- 
plied for  5  months  by  the  silos  in  the  community? 

Corn  producing  50  bushels  an  acre  should  make  on  an  average 
of  10  tons  of  silage.  At  the  same  rate,  how  many  acres  of  com 
would  be  necessary  to  fill  the  silos  of  the  community.  Develop 
similar  problems. 


197 


LESSON  EIGHT. 

Subject:  Soil. 
Topic :  Life  in  the  Soil. 

What  is  your  idea  of  the  soil?  When  you  think  of  it  is  it  witii 
the  impression  that  it  is  cold,  damp  and  muddy  in  winter,  and  hot, 
dry  and  dusty  in  summer?  Do  you  think  of  it  as  a  lifeless  mass 
of  sand,  clay,  gravel,  clods  and  rocks,  or  do  you  think  of  it  as 
being  the  home  of  a  multitude  of  tiny  creatures  constantly 
working  for  you.  Listen,  no  where  in  all  the  world  are  there  so 
many  active  living  beings  as  are  found  in  the  few  inches  of  soil 
on  the  earth's  surface.  Think  of  the  multitude  of  people,  animals, 
insects,  and  plants  that  live  on  the  earth,  yet  in  number  they  do 
not  compare  with  the  vast  mulitude  of  toiling  creatures  called 
germs  or  bacteria  that  live  in  the  soil. 

But  doubtless  you  are  already  thinking,  how  do  they  live,  what 
do  they  eat  and  what  do  they  do?  During  the  winter  months 
when  the  soil  is  freezing  and  thawing,  and  seems  so  cold,  damp 
and  muddy,  and  the  ice  crystals  and  frost  are  breaking  up  the 
gravels,  the  clods  and  the  rocks  into  small  particles  many  of  our 
little  friends  are  tucked  away  in  their  beds,  sleeping  like  the  toads 
and  the  insects.  But  when  the  warm  spring  days  come  and  the 
ice  and  frost  disappear,  they  wake  up  and  begin  working  night  and 
day  during  all  the  long  summer  months. 

But  what  do  they  eat?  It's  strange,  but  they  like  the  things 
that  we  do  not  want.  Just  think,  they  make  the  most  delightful 
meals  of  the  old  dead  leaves,  stems  and  roots  of  corn,  cotton,  peas, 
oats,  wheat,  tomatoes  and  other  plants.  And,  would  you  believe 
it,  while  they  are  eating  all  this  rubbish  about  the  farm,  getting 
it  out  of  the  way  of  the  farmer's  plow  and  the  little  seed  to  be 
planted  in  the  soil,  they  are  changing  it  back  into  the  richest 
kind  of  food  for  the  next  crop  of  plants  that  give  us  our  food  and 
clothing?  These  little  beings  of  the  soil,  like  people,  do  not  all 
perform  the  same  kind  of  work.  Some  are  breaking  up  the  parts 
of  decaying  plants,  others  take  those  parts  and  change  them  into 
food  for  growing  plants,  and  still  others  live  on  the  roots  of  peas, 
soybeans,  clover,  vetch  and  alfalfa,  and  collect  nitrogen,  one  of  the 
richest  plant  foods,  from  the  air  and  store  it  up  in  nodules  on  their 
roots. 

Do  you  take  an  interest  in  the  homes  of  your  chickens,  pigs, 

198 


calves  and  dogs  and  delight  in  seeing  them  well  fed?  Do  you 
e  n j  oy  visiting  the  homes  of  your  boy  and  girl  friends?  How  should 
you  feel  then  toward  the  soil  which  is  the  home  of  a  great  multitude 
of  our  most  helpful  little  friends? 

Get  acquainted  with  the  soil  this  month.  When  you  go  into 
the  gardens  and  fields  remember  that  you  are  looking  upon  the 
home  of  teeming  millions  of  little  creatures  too  small  to  be  seen 
by  the  naked  eye,  it's  true,  but  they  are  there  nevertheless. 
Remember  that  to  live  and  do  their  work  well  they  must  have 
air,  water  and  food  just  like  you.  These  little  friends  of  ours  are 
now  waking  up  to  begin  their  useful  work. 

Practical  Exercises. — Have  on  the  desk  the  following:  Small 
portions  each  of  light  sandy,  dark  sandy,  light  yellow  or  red  clay 
and  dark  clay  soils.  Have  pupils  take  notes  on  the  above  story 
read  or  told.  Call  the  pupils'  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  dark 
color  in  each  case  is  due  to  the  presence  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter.  Close  examination  may  reveal  small  particles.  The 
dark  soils  are  the  homes  of  a  larger  number  of  germ  friends. 

Correlations. — Language:  From  the  notes  taken  on  the  Life 
in  the  Soil  story  have  the  members  of  the  class  develop  either  an 
oral  or  written  story  of  their  own. 

Drawing:  Have  each  pupil  prepare  a  large  outline  map  of  the 
school  district.  Locate  the  types  of  soil  as  indicated  on  the  soil 
survey  map  of  the  couaty  or  section. 

Geography:  Locate  the  school  and  church  buildings,  the  main 
roads,  the  principal  streams,  the  village  or  town,  the  mills,  the 
railroad,  if  one,  and  telephone  lines  on  the  district  map.  This 
map  should  be  carefully  preserved  for  use  this  month. 

History:  In  connection  with  Maryland  history  answer  the 
following  questions:  Do  you  live  in  an  old  settled  community  or 
a  comparatively  new  settled  community?  Are  there  any  worn- 
out  soils  in  the  community?  Are  they  used  for  pastures?  Are 
there  any  such  places  being  improved?     How? 

Arithmetic:  Find  out  the  approximate  number  of  acres  of 
land  too  poor  for  cultivation  on  the  farms  represented  in  the  class, 
also  the  yield  per  acre  in  various  crops  on  good  soils.  From  these 
facts  develop  problems  showing  the  loss  sustained  on  the  farms 
each  year  as  a  result  of  worn-out  soil. 


199 


LESSON  NINE. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions. 

Soil. — The  preparation  of  seed  beds  should  be  rushed.  For 
all  the  staple  crops  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  disked  and 
rolled.  Crops  grown  for  green  manuring  should  be  turned  under 
and  the  soil  thoroughly  harrowed. 

Crops. — Secure  good  seed  of  all  kinds  of  crops.  Improved  seed 
are  as  valuable  as  improved  animals  and  are  cheap  at  any  price. 
Make  plans  to  improve  your  own  seed.  Seed-selection  plats 
are  recommended. 

Plan  the  crops  for  silage,  hog  pastures,  poultry  pastures  and  for 
green  feeds  in  general.  Sow  oats  in  Northern  and  Western  Mary- 
land, and  in  other  parts  of  the  State  if  the  crop  has  not  been  sown 
previously. 

Fruits. — Continue  spraying.  Begin  the  cultivation  of  the 
orchard.  Plant  grapes  and  strawberries.  Every  home  should 
be  well  provided  with  small  fruits  of  all  kinds. 

Gardening. — ^All  kinds  of  garden  operations  should  be  pushed. 
Every  home  garden  should  be  provided  with  a  cold  frame.  By 
its  use  early  vegetables  are  insured.  The  more  delicate  plants 
should  be  started  or  hardened  off  in  the  cold  frame  before  setting 
in  the  open.  In  this  way  plants  may  be  given  a  much  earlier 
start  than  if  planting  in  the  open  is  depended  upon. 

Farm  Animals. — Open  the  pastures  to  the  live  stock,  but  do 
not  cut  off  the  concentrated  food.  Look  after  the  work  animals. 
See  that  they  are  well  fed  and  that  their  harness  fits  them  well. 
Guard  against  injured  shoulders  and  hocks. 

All  young  animals  such  as  colts,  calves,  pigs  and  chickens 
should  receive  careful  attention.  Feed  them  well  and  keep  down 
all  kinds  of  vermin. 

The  cows  that  were  fresh  milkers  in  the  fall  should  not  be  per- 
mitted to  drop  off  in  their  milk.  If  properly  fed  until  the  pastunvs 
are  good,  they  may  be  continued  in  full  milk  flow  throughout  the 
summer. 

Improvements,  Plans  and  Repairs. — The  houses  should  be 
screened.  Remember  that  flies  are  the  carriers  of  typhoid  fever 
germs.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  their  com- 
ing in  contact  with  articles  of  food.     A  rigid  campaign  conducted 

200 


at  this  time  against  flies  goes  a  long  way  toward  keeping  down  the 
number. 

As  spring  approaches  clean  up  the  premises  and  apply  lime 
freely.  Pools  and  ponds  of  water  should  be  drained.  Old  wells 
should  be  filled.  Places  containing  standing  water  that  cannot  be 
conveniently  drained  should  have  frequent  applications  of  oil 
during  the  spring  and  summer  months.  By  such  procedures 
mosquitoes  may  be  prevented  from  breeding. 


201 


MAY. 

Introduction. 

The  lessons  for  this  month  conclude  the  work  for  the  school 
year.  If  the  session  extends  into  June,  some  topics  should  be 
reserved  for  that  month.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  session  closes 
earlier  than  May,  the  teacher  should  plan  to  complete  all  the  work 
of  the  year.  In  many  instances  the  older  pupils  must  drop  out 
of  school  early  in  the  spring  to  assist  with  the  work  of  the  farm. 
In  such  cases  the  teacher  should  so  arrange  the  program  of  reci- 
tations as  to  include  as  many  of  the  lesson  topics  as  possible  before 
these  pupils  discontinue  their  school  work. 

Management  Suggestions  for  June,  July  and  August  are  in- 
cluded in  the  lessons  for  this  month.  Special  attention  should  be 
given  such  of  these  as  relate  to  pupils'  home  projects  or  club  work. 

LESSON  ONE.    ' 

Subject:  Poultry. 
Topic :  Diseases. 

Gapes:  Cause. — The  gape  worm  disease  is  quite  prevalent  in 
some  sections,  especially  where  chicks  are  raised  on  limited  areas. 
Gapes  in  chickens  is  caused  by  worms  which  attach  themselves 
to  the  walls  of  the  trachea  or  windpipe  of  the  birds.  The  disease 
is  spread  by  the  chicks  getting  hold  of  the  worms  that  have  been 
coughed  up  or  passed  through  the  digestive  tract  of  diseased  birds. 
Each  of  these  worms  contains  thousands  of  eggs,  all  of  which  are 
ready  to  produce  other  worms  in  a  new  location.  On  infected 
land  earth  worms  are  said  to  act  as  carriers  of  this  disease. 

Symptoms:  The  symptoms  of  gape  worm  disease  are  so  char- 
acteristic and  so  easily  recognized  that  they  hardly  need  descrip- 
tion. The  main  symptom  is  the  stretching  of  the  neck  and  gasp- 
ing for  breath  on  the  part  of  the  young  chick. 

Treatment :  Preventive  measures  are  most  satisfactory.  Where 
the  disease  is  prevalent   change  runs  frequently.     If  possible, 

202 


grow  chicks  on  a  new  patch  each  year  and  cultivate  the  old  runs 
when  not  in  use.  Where  this  is  not  practicable,  heavy  liming  of 
the  soil,  a  bushel  to  every  twenty  square  feet,  might  be  tried. 
Keep  chicks  off  the  ground  when  it  is  wet  and  earth  worms  are  at 
the  surface. 

Isolate  all  affected  chicks  to  keep  them  from  spreading  the 
disease,  and  treat  them  with  the  old  horse-hair,  feather  or  blue 
grass  treatment.  A  feather  is  quite  satisfactory.  Strip  off  the 
vane,  leaving  one-third  inch  of  the  tip.  Dip  this  in  kerosene  or 
turpentine  and  insert  it  in  the  windpipe,  giving  it  a  twisting  move- 
ment when  withdrawing  it.  This  will  loosen  the  worms  so  that 
they  can  be  coughed  up  by  the  chick. 

Another  method  sometimes  used  is  to  put  the  chicks  in  a  box 
and  place  a  piece  of  cloth  over  it.  Then  slaked  lime  dust  is  rubbed 
through  the  cloth  and  being  breathed  by  the  chicks  gets  to  the 
worms  in  the  windpipe  and  loosens  them  up  so  that  they  can  be 
coughed  up. 

Sore  Head  is  a  well-known  disease  that  sometimes  affects  chicks 
during  the  warm  months  of  summer  and  autumn.  Its  symptoms 
are  very  well  known  and  consist  of  dry  sores  or  scabs  about  the 
head  parts.  The  cause  is  not  known  but  is  thought  to  be  caused 
by  very  small  germs  or  bacteria.  The  disease  is,  as  a  rule,  very 
mild  and  easily  cured.  If  the  chick  is  otherwise  healthy  a  few 
applications  of  vaseline  should  cure  it.  As  the  disease  can  be 
transmitted  from  chick  to  chick  it  is  well  to  separate  the  sick  from 
the  well  ones. 

The  disease  often  runs  through  a  flock  of  adult  fowls  in  the 
early  fall.  When  not  accompanied  by  other  diseases  simply 
applying  the  vaseline  a  few  times  will  usually  cure  it. 

Mites  are  often  troublesome  in  poultry  houses  especially  dur- 
ing the  warm  .weather  of  summer  when  they  breed  rapidly.  They 
stay  under  the  roosts  and  in  the  cracks  and  crevices  during  the 
day,  but  at  night  get  on  the  hens  in  large  numbers.  They  suck 
the  blood  and  are  otherwise  annoying  to  the  birds.  Hens  bothered 
with  mites  cannot  be  expected  to  do  well.  Often  they  will  roost 
out  of  doors  when  the  house  is  very  badly  infested. 

Symptoms:  Mites  can  usually  be  seen  very  readily.  Their 
presence  is  indicated  also  by  little  white  specks  appearing  around 
the  roosts  and  other  parts  of  the  house. 

Prevention:  Paint  the  roosts  once  each  month  with  ordinary 

203 


kerosene  oil.  This  will  keep  fchem  away.  If  they  are  present 
you  will  have  to  keep  after  them  for  some  tune.  Paint  the  roosts 
and  cracks  in  the  wall  where  mites  are  found  one  or  more  times 
each  week  until  they  are  driven  out  or  killed.  It  will  usually 
take  some  time  as  the  mites  hide  in  places  hard  to  reach.  Other 
preparations  are  sometimes  used,  but  the  kerosene  oil  will  do  the 
work. 

Fowl  Cholera  is  a  contagious  disease  that  affects  domestip 
birds.  Formerly  most  any  kind  of  a  diarrhoea  among  fowls 
was  called  cholera,  but  lately  the  name  has  been  used  more 
specifically. 

Cause:  The  disease  is  produced  by  a  small  bacterial  organism 
that  infests  the  blood  and  internal  organs.  It  is  hard  to  tell  how 
the  disease  is  carried  but  the  germs  probably  get  into  the  system 
through  the  digestive  tract. 

Symptoms:  There  are  no  symptoms  by  which  fowl  cholera 
can  be  recognized  with  certainty,  but  when  large  numbers  of 
fowls  have  diarrhoea  and  begin  to  die  rather  suddenly,  and  exhibit 
the  following  symptoms,  it  is  well  to  suspect  cholera  and  begin 
treatment:  Droppings  a  greenish  yellow  color,  bird  assumes  a 
rounded  or  ball  shape  with  feathers  roughened,  birds  become  very 
weak,  and  rapidly  lose  weight.  True  cholera  is  often  confounded 
with  other  diseases  with  similar  symptoms  from  which  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  distinguish  without  a  laboratory  examination. 

Treatment:  Dispose  of  all  birds  that  die  of  the  disease  either 
by  burying  deeply  or  burning.  Kill  or  isolate  all  affected  birds. 
Avoid  spilling  their  blood  where  other  fowls  can  get  at  it,  and 
destroy  or  burn  the  dead  bodies. 

Examine  the  droppings  boards,  floor,  and  runs  daily,  for  the 
characteristic  greenish  yellow  voidings.  If  any  are  found  remove 
these  and  destroy  them  and  spray  the  place  where  they  are  found 
with  some  strong:  disinfectant,  as  Kreso,  Zenoleum,  Napcreol,  etc. 

Disinfect  thoroughly  all  feed  troughs,  drinking  vessels,  grit 
hoppers,  etc. 

Give  the  birds  plenty  of  sour  milk  or  buttermilk,  if  it  is  feasible. 

Use  potassium  permanganate  in  the  drinking  water.  A  stock 
solution  can  be  made  by  dissolving  a  teaspoonful  of  the  crystals 
in  a  quart  of  water.  Use  enough  of  this  stock  solution  to  make 
the  water  a  claret  red. 

If  the  sick  birds  are  to  be  treated,  they  should  be  kept  entirely 

204 


away  from  the  flock,  and  given  from  two  to  four  teaspoonfuls  of  a 
half  per  cent  carbolic  acid  solution  twice  a  day.  (Teaspoonful 
to  three  pints  of  water.) 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  530;  Maryland  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  Bulletins  153  and  171. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Require  the  pupils  to  report  as  to  the 
following  facts  with  reference  to  poultry  diseases  in  the  community: 
(a)  The  name  of  the  disease,  (b)  the  probable  causes,  (c)  the 
symptoms,  (d)  the  treatments,  and  (e)  the  number  of  fowls 
lost  by  death.  (2)  Poultry  club  members  should  familiarize 
themselves  with  symptoms  and  treatments  of  diseases  so  as  to 
guard  against  loss. 

Correlations. — Reports  required  in  the  practical  exercise  should 
be  reduced  to  writing  and  copied  in  the  class  notebooks. 

Arithmetic:  Estimate  the  number  of  chickens  lost  by  death  in 
the  community  and  find  their  value  based  on  the  usual  prices  paid. 

LESSON  TWO. 

Subject:  Dairying. 

Topic:  Marketing  Products. 

Proper  Conditions  of  Production. — Milk  and  its  products  for 
home  consumption  or  for  market  should  be  produced  under  the 
following  condition  •} 

1.  Clean,  healthy  cows  kept  in  clean,  light,  well-ventilated 
stables. 

2.  Stable  so  constructed  as  to  be  easily  cleaned. 

3.  A  clean,  well-drained  barnyard. 

4.  Clean  utensils,  thoroughly  sterilized. 

5.  Clean,  healthy  milkers  that  milk  with  dry  hands. 

6.  A  small-top  milking  pail. 

7.  Immediate  cooling  of  the  milk  to  50°F.  or  lower. 

8.  Storage  of  milk  at  a  low  temperature  until  delivered  or  used. 

9.  A  separate  place  or  house  for  handling  milk. 
10.  An  abundant  supply  of  pure  water. 

Milk. — If  the  dairyman  or  farmer  is  selling  milk  for  city  supply 
and  the  dealer  or  consumer  knows  that  he  has  a  well-ventilated 
and  well-lighted  bam  with  a  tight  floor,  and  removes  the  milk  to 

^  P'armers'  Bulletin  602. 

205 


the  cooling  room  as  soon  as  drawn  from  the  cow,  this  will  be 
encouraged  by  a  higher  price  for  the  product,  especially  if  the 
cows  are  groomed  so  as  to  be  free  from  manure  and  dirt. 

Cream. — When  cream  is  being  shipped. to  the  centralizer  for 
buttermaking,  the  buyer  is  willing  to  pay  several  cents  more  per 
pound  of  butt  erf  at  if  the  cream  reaches  him  sweet  instead  of  sour. 
The  creameryman  can  make  a  better  grade  of.  butter  and  a  grade 
that  will  bring  a  higher  price  on  the  market  if  his  raw  material 
is  produced  under  sanitary  conditions  and  cooled  soon  after 
separating,  so  that  it  will  be  sweet  or  only  slightly  sour  when  it 
reaches  the  plant.  With  a  very  little  extra  care  the  cream  can 
be  kept  clean  and  sweet.  The  precautions  to  be  observed  are 
care  in  milking,  and  cooling  after  separating  so  as  to  check  bac- 
terial growth.  When  delivered  to  the  station  for  shipment  the 
can  should  be  kept  in  a  shady  place  until  train  time.  In  hot 
weather  it  is  the  custom  of  some  shippers  to  wrap  a  piece  of  wet 
burlap  around  the  cans  so  as  to  keep  the  temperature  down. 
There  is  now  on  the  market  a  jacket  which  fits  over  the  can,  and 
the  cream  will  only  increase  a  few  degrees  in  temperature  when  this 
jacket  is  used. 

Butter. — When  a  fine  grade  of  butter  is  made  on  the  farm  there  is 
a  greater  opportunity  to  sell  it  for  a  price  much  higher  than  the 
market  quotations  by  finding  a  select  trade  and  making  the  pack- 
age attractive.  Individuals  may  be  found  who  are  willing  to 
pay  several  cents  above  the  market  for  a  designated  number  of 
pounds  each  week,  packed  in  jars  and  covered  with  a  layer  of 
salt  paste.  Again,  grocers  are  willing  to  pay  above  the  market 
price  if  they  are  able  to  secure  a  definite  number  of  pound  or  two- 
pound  prints  wrapped  in  parchment  paper  and  enclosed  in  a 
carton.  As  a  general  rule,  people  are  willing  to  pay  well  if  the 
product  is  high  class  and  placed  in  their  hands  in  a  handy  and 
attractive  package. 

Textbook  References. — Nolan,  pp.  100-104. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletins  541  and  602;  Maryland 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  181  and  187. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  How  many  gallons  of  milk  are  shipped 
from  the  community  leach  week?  How  many  pounds  of  cream  or 
butt  erf  at?  How  many  pounds  of  butter?  What  is  the  prevail- 
ing price  paid  for  each  product?  Have  the  pupils  collect  the 
foregoing  information '  by  making  inquiry  at  their  homes  and  at 

206 


the  homes  of  neighbors.  (2)  Have  the  pupils  investigate  and 
report  as  to  the  containers  used  by  the  farmers  of  the  community 
in  shipphig  milk  and  cream;  also,  in  what  form  is  butter  molded 
for  market? 

Correlations. — Have  the  pupils  record  in  their  notebooks  the 
information  secured  in  connection  with  the  foregoing  exercises. 

Drawing:  Outline  the  various  forms  in  which  butter  is  molded. 

Arithmetic:  Find  the  value  of  the  dairy  products  sold  by  the 
(community  during  one  week  in  May.  What  would  be  the  amount 
for  the  entire  month? 

Geography :  Locate  on  the  map  the  creameries  and  markets 
to  which  the  dairy  products  are  shipped. 

History:  Is  there  a  local  creamery  or  a  farmers'  cooperative 
creamery  in  the  county?  When  was  it  established?  By  whom? 
Have  satisfactory  prices  been  j^aid  for  milk?  Has  the  creamery 
proven  a  success?     If  not,  why  not? 

LESSON  THREE. 

Subject:  Farm  Animals. 

Topic:  Removing  Horns  of  Calves. 

The  Importance. — It  is  considered  advisable  by  many  farmers 
and  cattle  growers  to  produce  hornless  animals.  This  not  only 
insures  against  injury  to  other  farm  animals  and  to  people,  but 
also  reduces  the  possibility  of  injury  in  shipping. 

Removing  the  Horns. — Examine  the  calf's  head  from  time  to 
time  until  the  horns  can  be  located  with  the  hand.  The  budding 
horn  can  be  found  usually  when  the  calf  is  from  one  to  two  weeks 
old.  Clip  away  the  hair  from  the  horn  with  a  pair  of  scissors. 
Next,  secure  from  a  drug  store  a  stick  of  caustic  potash  two  or 
three  inches  long  and  about  the  size  of  a  pencil.  Carefully  wrap 
one  end  of  the  stick  of  potash  with  paper  to  protect  the  hand. 
Moisten  the  other  end  of  the  stick  in  water  and  rub  it  upon  the 
horn  until  the  surface  of  the  horn  begins  to  peel  off.  Do  not  per- 
mit the  potash  to  come  in  contact  with  any  other  part  of  the 
calf's  head  as  it  produces  a  burn  which  is  very  painful  and  the 
hair  will  not  grow  wherever  the  caustic  potash  burns  the  skin. 

The  calf  should  be  separated  immediately  from  its  mother  and 
other  calves.     Otherwise  the  cow  mav  lick  the  caustic  or  the  calf 


207 


may  rub  its  head  against  the  cow's  udder  or  against  other  calves 
and  thereby  produce  burns. 

When  the  stick  of  potash  is  not  in  use  it  should  be  kept  in  a 
tightly-corked  bottle. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Farmers'  Bulletin  350. 

Practical  Exercises. — Those  pupils  who  are  carrying  on  as  a 
project  the  raising  of  a  baby  beef  might  secure  a  stick  of  caustic 
potash  and  dehorn  the  calf.  Of  course  this  would  apply  to  the 
very  young  calves  as  set  forth  in  this  lesson.  For  instructions 
as  to  the  feeding  and  care  of  the  calf,  see  Lesson  Eight  of  Sep- 
tember. A  careful  record  should  be  kept  as  to  the  amounts  of 
milk  and  feed  given  the  calf  so  that  the  cost  of  raising  it  may  be 
definitely  determined. 

Correlations. — Write  letters  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture requesting  information  as  to  Baby  Beef  Clubs. 

LESSON  FOUR. 

Subject:  Vegetable  and  Fruit  Gardening. 
Topics:  (1)  Planting  and  Cultivating  Vegetables; 

(2)  Picking,  Packing,  Crating  and  Cultivating 
Strawberries. 

Planting  in  the  Open. — Sweet  com,  musknielons,  watermelons, 
okra,  and  squash  should  be  planted  this  month.  Continue  to 
plant  beans.  In  Northern  and  Western  Maryland  this  is  the 
proper  time  to  begin  planting  beans.  Sweet  com  seed  should  be 
planted  two  inches  deep  in  drills  3  feet  apart.  Thin  to  a  single 
stalk  every  10  to  15  inches.  For  home  use  there  should  be  succes- 
sive plantings  of  sweet  com  every  two  or  three  weeks  until  far  into 
the  summer.  Among  the  varieties  recommended  are  Golden 
Bantam,  Adams  Early,  Country  Gentlemen,  and  Stowell's 
Evergreen.  Sweet  com  should  receive  about  the  same  cultivation 
as  field  com. 

Okra  should  be  planted  in  rows  3  to  5  feet  apart  depending  on 
the  variety.  Dwarf  varieties  require  less  distance  and  the  large 
varieties  greater  distance.  The  plants  should  be  thinned  to  18 
to  24  inches  in  the  row.  Give  frequent  shallow  cultivations  until 
the  plants  are  nearly  grown.  Some  of  the  leading  varieties  are 
White  Velvet,  Dwarf  Green  Prolific,  Perkins  Mammoth,  Long- 
Podded  and  Lady  Finger. 

208 


Cucumbers,  muskmelons,  watermelons  and  squashes  require 
good  soil  and  an  abundance  of  well-rotted  manure.  The  seed 
may  be  planted  in  rows  or  in  hills.  When  planted  in  rows  a 
deep  furrow  should  be  made  and  manure  scattered  along  the 
furrow,  turning  fresh  soil  over  the  manure  before  planting  the 
seeds.  If  the  seeds  are  planted  in  hills,  an  excavation  should 
be  made  and  this  filled  with  manure.  Cover  the  manure  with 
good  soil.  Cucumbers  should  be  planted  in  rows  5  feet  apart  and 
thinned  to  stand  12  to  18  inches  apart.  If  planted  in  hills  they 
should  stand  4  feet  apart  each  way.  The  musk  melon  is  planted 
in  the  same  general  way  as  cucumbers,  but  should  have  greater 
distance.  They  may  be  planted  in  drills  6  feet  apart  and  2  feet 
apart  in  the  row.  If  planted  in  hills  they  should  be  6  feet  apart 
each  way.  Amongthe  good  varieties  are  Rocky  Ford,  Netted  Gem, 
Emerald  Gem,  Eden  Gem,  Jenny  Lind,  and  Paul  Rose.  Water- 
melon seed  should  be  planted  in  rows  8  to  10  feet  apart  and  thinned 
to  single  plants  3  feet  apart;  or  planted  in  hills  8  to  10  feet  apart 
each  way.  The  same  preparation  should  be  made  as  in  case  of 
cucumbers.  Among  the  leading  varieties  are  Kleckley  Sweets, 
Florida  Favorite,  Georgia  Rattlesnake  and  Tom  Watson.  There 
are  two  types  of  squashes — bush  varieties  and  running  varieties. 
In  the  case  of  the  former  they  should  be  planted  in  hills  4  feet 
apart  each  way,  and  the  running  varieties  8  to  10  feet  apart  each 
way.  Some  good  varieties  are  Hubbard,  Boston  Marrow,  Delici- 
ous, and  Summer  Crook  Neck. 

Cucumbers,  muskmelons,  watermelons,  and  squashes  should  be 
given  frequent  shallow  cultivation  until  the  vines  fill  most  of  the 
space  between  the  rows.  After  this  keep  the  weeds  pulled  out  by 
hand. 

Transplanting.— Eggplants  should  be  set'  18  to  24  inches  apart 
in  rows  3  feet  apart.  New  York  Improved  Purple,  Black  Beauty, 
and  Florida  High  Bush  are  good  varieties. 

Pepper  plants  should  be  set  15  to  18  inches  apart  in  rows  2 J 
to  3  feet  apart.  Some  of  the  leading  sweet  pepper  varieties  are 
Ruby  King,  Chinese  Giant,  Sweet  Spanish,  Bell  or  Bull  Nose. 
The  leading  varieties  of  hot  peppers  are  Long  Red  Cayenne, 
Tobasco,  and  Red  Chester. 

Tomato  plants  should  be  set  18  inches  apart  in  rows  3  feet 
apart  if  they  are  to  be  pruned.  If  the  plants  are  not  to  be  pruned 
or  staked,  they  may  be  planted  3  feet  apart  in  rows  4  feet  apart. 

209 


It  is  generally  considered  advisable  to  prune  and  train  to  stakes 
as  plants  so  treated  are  healthier  and  more  easily  cultivated. 
The  fruit  will  also  be  earlier  and  more  uniform  in  size.  Soon 
after  the  plants  are  set  a  stake  should  be  driven  near  each  one. 
In  tying  plants  to  the  stake  care  should  be  exercised  not  to  injure 
them.  To  keep  the  plants  properly  pruned  go  over  the  patch 
once  every  ten  days  and  remove  all  shoots  starting  between  the 
leaves  and  the  stem.  Light  surface  cultivation  is  necessary  for 
eggplants,  peppers  and  tomatoes.  Some  good  varieties  of  tomatoes 
are  Bonny  Best,  Chalks,  Early  Jewel,  Greater  Baltimore,  Red 
Rock,  Globe,  Beauty,  Acme,  and  Stone.  The  Stone  variety  is 
recommended  for  canning. 

Sweet  potatoes  may  be  drawn  and  set  this  month.  Broad  ridges 
should  be  thrown  up  by  a  plow  and  the  plants  set  on  these.  If 
planted  in  hills  the  plants  should  stand  24  to  30  inches  apart 
each  way.  If  planted  in  rows  or  ridges  the  plants  should  stand 
14  to  18  inches  apart  in  rows  3  feet  apart. 

Garden  Tools. — ^Wherever  possible  one-horse  cultivators  should 
be  used.  Where  this  is  impossible,  use  wheel  hoes.  Among  the 
important  tools  are  spading  forks  for  preparing  beds,  dibbles  and 
trowels  for  transplanting,  hand  weeders  for  small  plants  in  beds, 
weed  hooks,  rakes  and  hand  hoes. 

Strawberries. — Instructions  for  picking,  packing,  crating  and 
shipping  were  given  in  Lesson  Seven  for  September.  This  lesson 
should  be  reviewed. 

During  the  growing  season  the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  culti- 
vated to  keep  it  loose  and  friable.  This  condition  of  the  soil  is 
beneficial  in  several  ways.  It  allows  the  air  to  penetrate  the  soil 
which  is  necessary  as  roots  need  air;  it  retains  moisture  in  the  soil 
by  preventing  rapid 'evaporation  from  the  surface;  it  assists  in 
breaking  down  plant  food;  and  it  keeps  the  ground  free  from 
weeds  which  rob  the  plants  of  moisture. 

Textbook  References.— Nolan,  pp.  283-286,  277-279;  Buffum 
and  Deaver,  pp.  147-149;  Burkett,  Stevens  and  Hill,  pp.  101- 
107;  Davis,  pp.  174-176. 

Teachers'  Reading.— Farmers'  Bulletins  198,  255,  324  and  647; 
Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletins  124,  160, 
180,  and  182. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Tomato  club  members  should  prepare 
the  ground  and  set  their  tomato  plants.     Secure  and  set  up  the 

210 


stakes  if  the  plants  are  to  be  trained  and  pruned.  (2)  Have  the 
members  of  the  class  make  a  list  of  the  various  vegetables  grown 
in  the  gardens  of  the  community.  Group  them  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads:  (a)  Roots  eaten  as  food,  (b)  leaves  eaten  as  food, 
(c)  fruit  eaten  as  food,  (d)  seed  eaten  as  food.  (3)  Require  the 
members  of  the  class  to  make  a  list  of  the  tools  employed  in  culti- 
vating the  home  garden. 

Correlations. — ^Describe  and  make  drawings  of  gardein  tools. 

Arithmetic:  If  tomato  plants  stand  18  inches  apart  in  the  row 
and  the  rows  are  3  feet  apart,  find  the  number  of  plants  required 
to  plant  one-tenth  of  an  acre. 

If  potato  plants  staad  30  inches  apart  each  way,  find  the  num- 
ber of  plants  necessary  to  set  an  acre. 

LESSON  FIVE. 

Subject:  Crops. 

Topics:  Planting,  Fertilizing,  and  Cultivating  Com. 

Planting. — Extensive  investigations  show  that  there  is  practic- 
ally no  difference  in  yield  whether  com  is  planted  in  hills  (checked) 
or  in  drills,  providing  it  is  distributed  correctly  and  the  same 
number  of  stalks  per  acre  are  produced.  Checked  corn  is  much 
easier  kept  free  from  weeds,  requires  less  hoeing,  and  under 
most  conditions  where  the  land  is  not  too  hilly  this  method  of 
planting  is  the  most  satisfactory.  On  very  hilly  fields  planting  in 
drills  is  in  most  cases  the  better. 

The  depth  of  planting,  necessarily  depends  upon  the  condition 
of  the  seed  bed,  the  soil  and  weather.  It  has  to  do  only  with  the 
plant  getting  properly  started  and  in  this  way  may  have  some 
bearing  on  yield.  The  depth  of  roots  is  not  materially  affected 
by  the  depth  of  planting.  On  stiff  clay  soil,  with  a  properly 
prepared  seed  bed  and  normal  weather,  com  should  not  be  planted 
over  2  inches  deep,  and  if  the  season  is  wet,  planting  1  to  1| 
inches  deep  is  better.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  weather  is  dry 
and  the  seed  bed  poorly  prepared  better  germination  will  be 
secured  by  planting  over  2  inches  deep.  Deeper  planting  is  also 
necessary  in  light  loamy  or  sandy  soils. 

Planting  should  not  begin  until  the  soil  has  warmed  up  to  a 
temperature  of  about  60°F.  So  much,  however,  depends  upon  the 
weather  before  and  after  planting,  and  also  upon  the  character 

211 


What  aw  Acke  of  Corn  would  Produce  if  there  were  no  Missing 
Plants  and  if  Every  Stalk  Bore  One  Ear. 


■■<■- -■ 

NO. 

HILLS  PER 

ACRE 

NO 

STALKS 

IN 

HILL 

NO. 

STALKS    PER 
ACRE 

YIELD  OF  CORN 

PER   ACRE  .N 
BUSHELS 

DISTANCK    APART    OF   HILL 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    3  ft.  9  in 

3,097 

3,097 

3,555 

3,555 

3,318 

3,318 

3,872 

3,872 

6,997 

7,744 

8,712 

9,956 

11,617 

13,939 

17,424 

7,467 

8,250 

9,335 

10,669 

12,446 

14,934 

18,671 

2 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 
2 
3 

6,194 

9,291 

7,110 

10,665 

6,636 

9,954 

7,744 

11,616 

6,997 

7,744 

8,712 

9,956 

11,617 

13,939 

17,424 

7,467 

8,250 

9,335 

10,669 

12,446 

14,934 

18,671 

70 
106 

81 
122 

76 
114 

89 
133 

80 

89 
100 
114 
133 
159 
199 

85 

94 
107 
122 
143 
171 
213 

88 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    3  ft.  9  in 

132 

3  ft.  6  in.  X    3  ft.  6  in 

101 

3  ft.  6  in.  X    3  ft.  6  in 

152 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    3  ft.  6  in 

95 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    3  ft.  6  in 

147 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    3  ft 

111 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    3  ft 

166 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  20  in. 

100 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  18  in 

111 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  16  in 

125 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  14  in.     . 

147 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  12  in 

166 

3  ft.  9  in.  X  10  in 

199 

3  ft.  9  in.  X    8  in 

249 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  20  in 

106 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  18  in 

117 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  16  in.. .     . 

134 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  14  in 

152 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  12  in 

179 

3  ft.  6  in.  X  10  in 

214 

3  ft.  6  in.  X    8  in 

267 

of  the  seed  bed,  that  no  definite  rule  can  be  given.  Investigations 
have  shown  little  beyond  that  of  the  old  Indian  sign,  which  is, 
"plant  com  when  the  leaves  of  the  oak  trees  are  as  large  as  squir- 
rels' ears." 

The  number  of  stalks  per  hill  or  the  distance  apart  in  the  row  if 
planted  in  drills  depends  largely  upon  the  variety,  the  season 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  If  an  exceptionally  high  yield  is 
desired,  and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  is  provided  for,  the  planting 
must  be  thicker  than  the  common  practice  of  planting  two  stalks 
in  the  hill,  3  feet  9  inches  by  3  feet  9  inches;  for  when  planted  in 
such  a  manner  with  no  stalks  missing  at  harvest  time  and  each 
stalk  bearing  one  ear  weighing  eight-tenths  of  a  pound  (the  aver- 

212 


age  weight  of  ears  for  a  good  crop)  the  yield  would  be  only  70 
bushels  per  acre.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  supply  of  moisture 
during  July  and  August  should  be  far  below  that  required,  then 
thicker  planting  would  reduce  the  yield.  The  above  table 
shows  what  may  be  expected  in  yield  at  different  rates  of  plant- 
ing, provided  there  is  sufficient  fertility  and  moisture  to  produce 
a  good  crop. 

Fertilizer. — Stable  or  barnyard  manure  is  by  far  the  best  fer- 
tilizer for  corn,  but  even  this  cannot  make  up  in  one  year  all  the 
deficiencies  of  poor  soil,  and  if  an  exceptionally  high  yield  at  a 
minimiun  cost  of  production  is  desired,  the  soil  must  be  fertile 
to  start  with.  Experiments  at  the  Maryland  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  show  that  fresh  manure  applied  in  the  fall  or  early 
winter  and  plowed  imder  in  the  spring  gives  better  yields  of  com 
than  when  applied  the  latter  part  of  the  winter  or  spring.  Rotted 
manure  applied  in  the  spring  gave  better  results  than  fresh  manure. 

As  a  rule,  commercial  fertilizer  when  applied  alone  to  com  gives 
less  profit  than  when  applied  to  other  crops.  Much,  however, 
depends  upon  the  weather  and  composition  of  the  fertilizer.  In 
a  dry  season  heavy  applications  of  commercial  fertilizer  may 
reduce  the  yield  but  in  a  wet  year  bad  results  seldom  occur  and 
often  profitable  retums  are  secured.  At  the  Maryland  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station  the  best  results  have  been  secured 
when  the  fertilizer  was  used  in  combination  with  stable  manure,' 
especially  was  this  true  when  kainit  was  used  with  the  manure. 
Other  investigations  show  that  a  complete  fertilizer  when  applied 
to  corn  usually  gives  the  best  results.  Among  the  complete 
fertilizers  those  high  in  nitrogen  give  the  highest  yields,  and  in 
a  dry  season  are  least  apt  to  cause  "firing." 

Cultivation  should  be  thorough;  it  should  begin  early,  and  when 
necessary  continue  until  after  the  tassel  or  even  the  ear  appears. 
No  rule  can  be  given  for  the  number  of  times  com  should  be  worked, 
because,  in  some  cases  four  times  may  be  sufficient,  and  in  other 
cases  eight  or  ten  workings  may  not  be  too  much;  weather,  weeds, 
and  soil  conditions  are  the  only  guides. 

If,  after  planting  and  before  the  plants  have  pushed  through 
the  ground,  heavy  rains  form  a  hard  crust,  the  field  should  be 
gone  over  with  a  spike-tooth  harrow  or  weeder. 

This  is  also  an  excellent  treatment  after  the  com  is  up  and  even 
a-fter  reaching  a  height  of  three  inches  or  more.     Care,  however, 

213 


must  be  taken  that  the  harrowmg  is  done  when  the  soil  is  in 
proper  condition;  little  good  and  often  injury  resulting  when 
land  is  too  wet  or  too  dry. 

The  cultivator  should  be  started  as  soon  as  conditions  will 
permit,  not  waiting  until  weeds  show  up.  The  best  way  to  keep 
the  weeds  in  check  is  never,  to  let  them  get  started,  and  the  nearer 
each  working  is  done  at  the  proper  time  the  fewer  will  be  the 
number  of  cultivations  necessary.  Shallow  cultivation  is  prefer- 
able at  all  times;  if,  however,  the  ground  is  hard  or  compact  and 
weedy  the  first  cultivation  should  be  deep  and  close  to  the  corn; 
but  when  the  plants  have  reached  a  height  of  6  or  8  inches  the 
cultivations  should  be  shallow,  rumiing  the  shovels  not  more 
than  three  inches  deep.  After  this  period  of  growth  the  lateral 
roots  spread  rapidly  in  every  direction,  soon  ramifying  through 
all  the  soil  between  the  rows  and  the  plants.  Under  normal 
conditions  a  large  portion  of  the  roots  develop  near  the  surface 
so  that  cultivating  4  inches  d^ep  may  destroy  50  per  cent  more 
roots  than  3  inches  deep. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  destruction  of  weed  is  not  the 
only  reason  for  cultivating,  breaking  a  hard  crust  to  allow  the  air 
to  penetrate  the  soil,  and  to  conserve  the  moisture  is  often  equally 
as  important  as  killing  weeds. 

Textbook  Reference. — Davis,  pp.  140-142;  Burkett,  Stevens 
and  Hill,  pp.  197-202;  Buffum  and  Deaver,  pp.  103-105;  Nolan, 
pp. 267-272. 

Teachers'  Reading. — Maryland  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins,  141,  165,  and  190:  Farmers'  Bulletins  400,  414, 
537,  and  617. 

Practical  Exercises. — (1)  Corn  club  members  should  plant 
their  corn  plats  this  month.  The  seed  bed  should  have  been 
thoroughly  prepared  beforehand.  (2)  Have  each  member  of 
the  class  report  as  to  the  kind  of  corn  planter  used  at  home. 
What  is  the  name  of  the  planter?  What  are  the  advantages? 
The  disadvantages?  (3)  Make  a  list  of  the  varieties  of  corn 
being  planted  on  the  farms  of  the  community.  Has  the  seed  com 
been  tested  at  the  home  of  each  member  of  the  class?  Have  the 
com  club  members  tested  their  seed?    If  not,  why? 

Correlations. — All  reports  in  connection  with  practical  work 
should  be  submitted  in  writing. 

Arithmetic :  If  the  average  weight  of  the  ears  of  com  grown  on 

214 


an  acre  is  eight-tenths  of  a  pound,  how  many  ears  required  to 
produce  100  bushels?  How  many  stalks  each  producing  one  ear? 
How  many  hills  with  two  stalks  in  a  hill?  If  the  acre  is  in  the 
form  of  a  square  how  many  rows  are  there  if  they  are  3J  feet 
apart?  How  many  hills  in  a  row?  What  is  the  average  distance 
between  the  hills? 

LESSON  SIX. 

Subject:  Nature  Study. 

Plants. — Have  the  pupils  prepare  in  their  notebooks  a  table 
similar  to  the  following  and  use  it  for  tabulating  facts  with  ref- 
erence to  orchard  and  forest  trees  as  indicated  by  the  column 
headings.  A  large  placard  bearing  such  a  table  might  occupy 
a  conspicuous  place  on  the  wall  of  the  schoolroom.  As  the  facts 
are  collected  have  them  entere'd  in  the  proper  column. 

Table  of  Plant  Facts. 


NAME  OF 
PLANT 

ORCHARD    OR 
FOREST 

DATE 

BLOSSOMS    FIRST 

APPEAR 

DATE 
BLOSSOMS   BE- 
COME COMMON 

DATE 

LEAVES  FIRST 

APPEAR 

DATE 

LEAVES  BECOMK 

COMMON 



Study  the  strawberry  plant  and  fruit  using  the  following  outline : 

1.  How  should  strawberries  be  planted — in  rows  or  hills?  How  far  apart 
should  rows  be?    How  far  apart  should  plants  stand  in  the  row? 

2.  From  what  do  strawberry  plants  grow — seed  or  runners? 

3.  Examine  a  strawberry  plant  in  class.  Are  the  roots  fleshy  or  branch- 
ing?   How  are  the  leaves  arranged?    How  many  leaflets  in  each  group? 

4.  Examine  a  strawberry  blossom.  How  many  parts  has  the  hull  or 
calyx?  How  many  parts  has  the  blossom  or  corolla?  Is  there  a  green 
button  in  the  center  of  the  blossom?  What  is  it?  Are  the  blossoms  found 
in  clusters?  Do  they  all  open  at  the  same  time?  What  parts  of  the 
flower  fall  away  and  what  parts  remain?  What  insects  visit  strawberry 
blossoms?    In  what  way  are  they  helpful? 

5.  Examine  several  ripe  strawberries.  A  re  they  all  the  same  shape  and 
color?  What  are  the  specks  on  the  surface  of  the  berry — seed?  Is  the 
berry  the  same  color  on  the  surface  as  it  is  within?  Name  the  varieties 
of  strawberries  grown  in  the  community. 

215 


Animals. — Fly:  The  pupils  should  be  taught  with  greal 
emphasis  the  danger  from  flies.  This  is  the  time  of  year  to  begin 
combating  them.  Each  fly  destroyed  now  represents  thousands 
later  in  the  summer.  All  windows  and  doors  of  the  house  should 
be  screened.     Study  the  fly  after  the  following  outline: 


^ 


>^^  n 


Fig.  1.    The  House  Fly. 


1.  Locate  the  fly's  eyes.    How  many  are  there?    How  do  they  appear? 

2.  How  many  wings  and  what  color — transparent? 

3.  How  many  legs?    Number  of  joints  of  each? 

4.  Can  you  see  the  fly's  tongue?    Can  it  be  felt  when  the  fly  eats  from 
the  hand? 


216 


5.  How  does  the  fly  carry  disease?     What  diseases  do  flies  carry? 

6.  Where  do  flies  lay  their  eggs? 
(See  Farmers'  Bulletin  679.) 

Mosquito:  Study  the  mosquito  and  emphasize  the  importance 
of  keeping  the  premises  free  from  them.  These  pestiferous 
insects  soon  begin  to  put  in  their  appearance  if  preventive  measures 
are  not  taken.  Instruct  the  pupils  to  rid  their  premises  of  all 
discarded  tin  cans,  jars,  buckets,  and  the  like.  They  should 
drain  pools  of  water  and  fill  up  old  wells.  Standing  water  that 
cannot  be  drained  should  have  its  surface  covered  with  oil.  Use 
the  following  outline  in  studying  the  mosquito : 

1.  Collect  specimens  of  all  the  kinds  of  mosquitoes  that  can  be  found 
and  bring  them  to  school  in  bottles. 

2.  Name  and  describe  each  kind. 

3.  When  at  rest  which  kind  is  stort  and  humpbacked?  Which  stands 
with  hind  legs  in  the  air? 

4.  Get  a  small  bottle  of  stagnant  water  containing  wrigglers  (wiggle 
tails).    Examine  these  closely.    These  are  larvae  of  mosquitoes. 

5.  Why  does  oil  poured  on  the  surface  of  water  kill  the  larvae  of  mosqui- 
toes? 

(See  Farmers'  Bulletin  155.) 

Birds:  Make  a  list  of  the  birds  that  may  be  seen  this  month. 
Note  the  absence  of  winter  residents;  also  the  reappearance  of 
summer  residents.  Do  birds  appear  in  pairs?  Are  they  building 
nests?  Where  are  the  nests  located?  Does  the  source  of  food 
supply  have  anything  to  do  with  the  locations  of  the  nests?  Do 
locations  of  nests  afford  natural  protection  for  the  birds  and  their 
young? 

See  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  305. 

Textbook  References.— Nolan,  pp.  32-34;  Davis,  pp.  207-212. 

Practical  Exercises. — Carrying  out  the  instructions  in  the 
foregoing  exercises  provides  considerable  work  outside  the  class- 
room. In  addition,  the  pupils  should  collect  and  mount  a  large 
number  of  insects.     (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  606.) 

Correlations. — Language:  Have  the  pupils  write  a  description 
of  a  strawberry  plant. 

Drawing:  Make  drawings  of  strawberry  leaves  and  berries; 
also  sketch  flies,  mosquitoes  and  other  insects. 


217 


LESSON  SEVEN. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions  for  May. 

Soil. — Winter  cover  crops  should  be  turned  if  this  work  has  not 
already  been  done.  Be  careful  not  to  turn  over  completely  the 
furrow  slice.  Instead,  the  slice  should  rest  against  its  neighbor. 
Reasons  for  this  were  given  in  the  lesson  on  green  manuring. 

Crops. — Begin  planting  com.  Good  seed  beds  should  be  pre- 
pared as  thorough  preparation  is  more  than  half  the  battle  in 
growing  a  cultivated  crop.  If  there  are  areas  oa  the  farm  that 
are  run  down  or  lack  humus,  plant  them  to  cow  peas,  soybeans  or 
velvet  beans.  These  plants  not  only  store  nitrogen  in  the  soil 
but  add  other  fertilizing  elements  and  vegetable  matter  when 
turned  under. 

Orchards. — Continue  spraying  all  trees  using  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture and  arsenate  of  lead.  The  grape  vines  should  receive  liberal 
applications  of  Bordeaux  mixture. 

Gardens. — Set  out  tomato,  potato,  pepper  and  eggplants. 
Plant  melons,  cucumbers  and  squashes.  Keep  up  a  continuous 
shallow  cultivation  of  all  garden  crops.  Plan  for  a  continuous 
supply  of  beans  and  sweet  com.  Keep  an  eye  out  for  potato 
beetles  and  combat  them  with  arsenate  of  lead  or  Paris  green. 

Farm  Animals. — Refer  to  the  table  of  succession  of  crops  for 
hogs  in  Lesson  Four  of  September.  It  will  be  noted  that  now 
is  the  time  to  plant  rape,  cow  peas,  and  com.  Sufficient  amounts 
of  these  crops  should  be  planted  to  insure  ample  grazing  in  late 
summer  and  early  fall. 

(For  particular  information  with  reference  to  rape  and  cow  peas 
see  Farmers'  Bulletins  164  and  318.) 

Begin  marketing  the  early  chickens.  Broilers  put  on  the  mar- 
ket at  this  season  command  a  fancy  price.  Look  after  the  health 
of  young  chickens.  See  that  they  have  fresh  water  and  whole- 
some food;  also  that  brooders  and  brooding  coops  are  kept  dry 
and  in  a  sanitary  condition.  A  liberal  amount  of  lime  should  be 
used  around  poultry  houses  and  runs. 

Provide  a  special  room  or  small  house  for  milk  and  its  products. 
Such  a  place  should  be  cool  and  clean.  Running  water  should  be 
provided.  For  instructions  as  to  the  care  and  attention  of  fresh 
milkers  and  young  calves  review  Lesson  Eight  for  September. 

218 


Improvements  and  Repairs. — Drain  all  swampy  places,  keep 
the  stables  clean,  mow  the  weeds  and  screen  the  doors  and  win- 
dows. Provide  conveniences  for  the  kitchen.  Make  or  purchase 
a  fireless  cooker. 

LESSON  EIGHT. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions  for  June. 

Soil. — Cultivate  often  and  shallow. 

Crops. — Wheat  should  be  harv^ested  this  month.  Red  clover 
should  be  mowed  when  in  full  bloom  and  stored  for  hay.  Fallow 
land  should  be  plowed  and  planted  to  peas,  soybeans,  or  sweet 
potatoes.  If  potatoes  are  planted,  apply  liberally  fertilizers  rich 
in  potash.  Potatoes  may  be  grown  from  cuttings  of  vines  or 
slips.  Potatoes  grown  from  cuttings  do  not  rot  so  badly  as  from 
slips. 

Fruits. — Clean  out  strawberry  beds  or  cultivate  the  patch. 
If  the  plants  have  been  bearing  for  two  or  more  years  reset  them 
or  plant  new  ones.  The  orchard  should  be  planted  to  cow  peas 
or  some  truck  crop.  Do  not  neglect  the  spraying.  As  fruit 
ripens,  can  the  surplus. 

Gardens. — Keep  up  a  succession  of  garden  crops.  Continue 
to  plant  beans,  tomatoes  and  sweet  com.  Tomatoes  should  be 
staked  and  pruned.  The  shoots  appearing  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves  should  be  removed  as  rapidly  as  they  appear.  All  garden 
crops  should  be  cultivated  often  and  shallow.  Horse  cultivation 
is  best.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  wheel  hoes  should  be  secured. 
A  small  outlay  in  good  garden  tools  saves  time  and  labor. 

Pastures. — Pastures  should  be  carefully  looked  after.  Keep 
them  free  of  bushes,  briars  and  weeds.  If  the  water  supply  in  the 
pasture  runs  low,  see  that  all  animals  are  properly  provided  for. 
Every  permanent  pasture  should  have  ample  shade  for  the  live 
stock.  If  there  is  not  a  sufficient  number  of  trees,  temporary 
sheds  should  be  made. 

Farm  Animals. — Guard  carefully,  the  health  of  the  hogs  and 
poultry.  If  hog  cholera  breaks  out  in  the  community  get  in 
touch  with  the  College  of  Agriculture  at  College  Park,  Md.,  and 
prepare  to  inoculate  against  the  disease.  Prompt  action  is  neces- 
sary in  such  cases. 


219 


Keep  all  work  stock  in  good  condition.  See  that  collars  and 
harness  fit  properly.  It  is  easier  to  prevent  sores  caused  by  rub- 
bing than  it  is  to  heal  them.  As  the  hot  season  advances  cut  some 
of  the  com  out  of  the  ration  and  substitute  oats  and  a  good  quality 
of  legume  hay. 

LESSON  NINE. 

Subject:  Management  Suggestions  for  July. 

Soil. — Do  not  permit  the  stubble  to  lie  idle.  If  it  is  to  be  suc- 
ceeded by  another  grain  crop  in  the  fall  or  some  cultivated  crop 
in  the  spring,  plant  the  stubble  land  to  cow  peas  or  soybeans. 
These  crops  not  only  improve  the  soil  but  may  be  used  for  graz- 
ing or  for  silage. 

Continue  frequent  light,  shallow  cultivation  of  garden  and 
field  crops.  This  kind  of  cultivation  causes  moisture  which  is 
especially  important  at  this  season  as  the  plants  are  large  and 
require  a  great  deal.  Remember  that  plant  food  is  useless  without 
moisture  to  enable  it  to  be  carried  to  the  plant.  Do  not  stop  the 
cultivation  of  com  too  soon.  In  fact,  cultivation  should  be  con- 
tinued until  the  winter  cover  crop  is  planted,  which  should  be  the 
latter  part  of  July  or  during  August. 

Gardens. — Keep  the  garden  going.  Fall  vegetables  such  as 
tumips,  potatoes  and  cabbage  should  be  started  this  month. 

Can  all  the  surplus  vegetables  and  fruits.  Do  not  permit 
anything  to  go  to  waste  that  can  be  saved  for  winter  use. 

Harvesting. — Haul  in  and  thresh  the  grain.  Save  all  the  hay 
possible.  Grain  straw  should  be  stacked  in  a  dry  place  or  baled. 
The  quality  of  hay  is  preserved  if  it  is  carefully  stacked  or  baled. 

Farm  Animals. — Keep  all  animals  thrifty  by  furnishing  them 
with  pure  water  and  a  liberal  amount  of  succulent  food.  If  the 
pastures  begin  to  dry  up,  feed  work  animals  and  dairy  cows  fresh 
hay.    The  cows  should  not  be  permitted  to  drop  off  in  their  milk. 

Save  all  the  eggs  possible.  If  they  do  not  command  a  reason- 
able price,  preserve  them  for  home  use  at  a  time  when  there  is  a 
good  price  for  the  supply  of  fresh  eggs.  Look  after  the  health 
of  the  poultry.  Keep  the  houses  and  mns  well  limed.  If  a  dis- 
ease breaks  out,  separate  the  affected  chickens  from  the  others 
and  give  them  treatment.  For  causes,  symptoms  and  treatment 
of  poultry  diseases  see  Farmers*  Bulletin  530. 

220 


Improvements  and  Repairs. — Clean  up  weed  patches,  ditches, 
and  terraces.  Keep  the  premises  free  of  places  where  flies  and 
mosquitoes  can  breed.     Keep  the  screens  in  good  condition. 

LESSON  TEN. 
Subject:  Management  Suggestions  for  August. 

Soils. — Cultivation  of  late  field  and  garden  crops  should  be 
continued. 

Crops. — Begin  sowing  crimson  clover  and  rye  for  cover  crops. 
Prepare  the  land  and  sow  alfalfa.  The  seed  of  a  leguminous 
crop  should  be  inoculated  if  this  crop  has  not  been  grown  on  the 
land  before.     Make  and  store  hay. 

Gardens  and  Orchards. — Look  after  the  fall  gardens.  Plant 
lettuce,  radishes,  spinach  and  the  like.  Can  tomatoes,  beans, 
sweet  corn  and  other  vegetables.  The  surplus  of  all  kinds  of 
fruits,  such  as  apples,  peaches,  pears,  and  grapes  should  be  pre- 
served in  some  form.  Canned  fruits,  jellies,  preserves,  and  the 
like  should  be  found  in  abundance  in  every  farm  home. 

The  tomato  club  members  should  keep  up  with  the  ripening 
fruit  in  the  matter  of  canning. 

Farm  Animals. — The  hogs  intended  for  fall  fattening  should  be 
kept  in  a  thrifty  condition.  They  should  be  in  a  good  pasture 
now.  If  a  succession  of  crops  is  maintained  for  the  hogs,  rape, 
cow  peas,  soybeans  or  red  clover  should  be  available  for  grazing. 
An  abundance  of  rape  and  turnips  should  be  grown  for  late  fall 
and  winter  feeding.  Sows  that  are  to  drop  fall  litters  of  pigs 
should  be  kept  on  good  pastures  and  fed  a  reasonable  amount  of 
concentrated  food. 

Give  the  hens  and  pullets  good  attention  and  feed.  As  soon  as 
the  moulting  period  is  over  the  hens  should  be  fed  properly  to 
encourage  egg  production. 

If  pastures  should  become  dry  give  the  cows  some  green  feed. 
(Jows  that  are  to  drop  fall  calves  should  be  kept  on  good  pastures 
or  fed  succulent  food.  They  should  also  be  given  a  small  amount 
of  concentrated  food. 

Improvements  and  Repairs. — Lay  in  a  supply  of  winter  wood 
and  build  good,  dry  walks  about  the  premises.  Keep  the  premises 
and   the   farm    cleaned    up.     Whitewash    the   outbuildings   and 


221 


apply  lime  freely  about  poultry  and  hog  houses.  If  necessary, 
paint  and  make  additions  to  the  farm  buildings. 

Plan  permanent  improvements  such  as  new  fences,  tile  drain- 
age, and  silos. 

Take  a  vacation.  Attend  farmers'  meetings  and  visit  the  homes 
of  successful  farmers  with  a  view  of  studying  their  methods  and 
equipment.  Be  open-minded  and  progressive.  Learn  by  the 
successes  and  failures  of  other  people. 


222 


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